Social Psychology Finals PDF

CHAPTER 7: SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND Social Norms PERSUASION A generally accepted way of thinking, feeling or behaving...

CHAPTER 7: SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND Social Norms PERSUASION A generally accepted way of thinking, feeling or behaving that is endorsed and expected because it is the right and SOCIAL INFLUENCE proper thing to do. - is the process of inducing change in other people It is a rule, value, or standard shared by the members of a social group. Obedience It implies that members should or ought to think, see or cat - Change can be the result of direct order to do in a certain way in relevant circumstances something such as when a military officer gives an Subjective validity order to a subordinate. When this happens, we call it ○ the subjective aspect of a normative belief. If one's obedience. subjective confidence that some idea, judgment, or - Basic to a situation involving obedience is some sort action is right. of power–real or imagined, that the person giving the ○ Why do members accept social influence? orders has over the person obeying him/her. To reduce uncertainty Compliance Maintain membership in the group and avoid - Not all social influence is due to direct orders from social rejection people in positions of authority. Both norm formation and conformity were - Compliance is when a person does something seen as an outcome of pressures towards simply because he was asked to, not because the uniformity. person requesting had any type of power. Uniformity provides group members with Conformity subjective validity for beliefs which could not - Social influence also operates in a very subtle way be tested directly against physical reality. when people follow norms, or generally expected Uniformity is necessary for the group to ways of behaving in certain situations. reach desired goal - For example when you are in an elevator, what do you do? Most likely, you face forward and stare at Social Conformity the numbers. - We usually conform in situations where norms exist Majority Social Influence for proper behavior. - movement on the part of one or more deviants towards the - In a sense, conformity is the lifeblood of a society, group norm as a function of explicit or implicit social for without conformity to rules, society could not pressure from the group. exist. Independence - the deviant is uninfluenced by the majority.  Anticonformity - the deviant moves away from the majority. Minorities can change people’s mind from concerns with why they disagree with the majority and enable them to concentrate on validating the message, leading to Conformity Pressures conversion (conversion theory) Informal Influence - influence to accept information from another as Minority Influence valid evidence about objective reality. Normative Influence - influence to conform to the positive Minority influence produces social change and innovation expectations of others or oneself to elicit a positive reaction. Minority creates conflict and uncertainty in the group and in so doing, offers a new and different perspective. Process and Outcomes Minorities influence through their behavioral style Informal, cognitive processes lead to Iprivate acceptance. ○ consistency Normative, social processes lead to public compliance. ○ investment ○ autonomy Persuasion and Power ○ rigidity ○ fairness - changing the beliefs , attitudes, or behaviors of a target through the use of information or argument. Obedience to Authority All influence reflect a power relationship Authority is the power to influence or control based on social Power is the capacity to exercise influence position or hierarchy Influence is a power in action Legitimate power Different powers as distinct means to exercise influence All conformity is a process of submission People seek to meet the expectation of powerful others to gain social approval CHAPTER 8: AGGRESSION AND ALTRUISM Minority Influence AGGRESSION - the deliberate and intentional infliction of harm upon another Power and influence are alternatives person who wants to avoid such treatment. Influence vs. coercion/domination Power is used when one has no influence What causes aggression? True influence is the right of the powerless 1. Aggression is an innate tendency Conformity to the group prevents individuals from processing 2. External stimulus deeply the information coming from the group Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis  - Asserts that (a) every frustration leads to some form Aggressors of aggression and (b) every aggression act is due to some prior frustration Aggressive behavior usually involves two people of the same - The cause and degree of aggression frustration race/ethnicity (violent crime, assault, sexual assault, influence the intensity of the resulting aggression. murder). 3. Social Learning Men and women are equally likely to engage in aggressive ○ Social learning theory holds that aggressive behavior, but only men engage in violence. responses are acquired and maintained through More of reported cases if rape or sexual assault involve a experiences of reward. male offender and a female victim. ○ The type of aggression depends on the range of Reports of aggravated assault overwhelmingly involve men aggressive responses learned and the cost/reward as both offender and victim. anticipated Most murders involve two men. 4. Norm ○ “An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth” Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis ○ People match the level of their retaliation to the level of the attack. What intensifies aggression? ○ In the heat of anger, we are likely to overestimate 1. Strength of frustration the strength of another’s provocation and to 2. When frustration is arbitrary, unprovoked or illegitimate underestimate the intensity of our response.When Researchers asked students to make appeals for a charity angry, we are more likely to misinterpret responses over the telephone. that have no aggressive intent as intentional The students were frustrated by refusals from all the provocation potential donors. ○ Even when people strive to match retaliation to In the legitimate frustration condition, “donors” offered good provocation, aggression may escalate. reasons for refusing (“I lost my job”). In the illegitimate frustration condition, they offered weak, Social Learning arbitrary reasons (“charities are a rip-off”). Individuals exposed to illegitimate frustration were more Aggressive behavior is learned. aroused than those in the legitimate frustration. Children learn aggressive behaviors from their parents. They also directed more verbal aggressions against the Children who are given corporal punishments learn that if potential donors (Kulick & Brown, 1979). someone’s behavior breaks rules or makes you angry, it is okay to punish them physically.  Violence and Media When do people help? 1. Cognitive model of bystander intervention Imitation a. Notice that something is wrong; Cognitive priming b. Define it as an emergency; Legitimization/justification c. Decide whether to take personal responsibility; Desensitization d. Decide what type of help to give; Arousal e. Implement the decision. 2. Cost-Reward Perspective Pornography a. People help others for self-gratification (egoism). b. The anticipation of rewards underlies helping Nonaggressive pornography (erotica) by itself does not behavior. produce aggression toward women. c. Consideration of rewards and cost influence Aggressive pornography has lasting effects on attitudes and decisions to give or withhold help. behaviors. Men who watched aggressive porn indicate more d. Individuals will generally not give help unless they willingness to use force to obtain sex. think that the rewards will outweigh the costs. Aggressive porn reduces inhibition to aggression by i. Cost (effort, danger) and rewards (fame, suggesting that aggression toward women has a positive self-praise) for helping; and, outcome. ii. Cost for not helping (feelings of discomfort due to another’s distress) ALTRUISM - Helping that is intended to provide aid to someone else What influences perception of cost and reward? without expectation of any reward. Characteristics of the person in need. Personality differences of the potential helpers (similarity, Prosocial behaviors attraction, or social attitudes). Gender differences Action is considered beneficial to others and as having ○ women may be less likely to help in situations in positive social consequences. which potential costs are higher. ○ men are more likely to engage in helping behavior Helping that involves danger while women are more likely to assist in situations requiring caretaking, nurturance, One kind of prosocial behavior that has the consequence of and emotional support. providing some benefit to or improving the well-being of another person. When do people help? 1. Learning a. People are motivated to help others because they 4. Personal Norms or Standards have been reinforced for helping in the past. a. Focuses on one’s feelings or moral obligation to b. People help through direct PERSUASION or perform specific actions that stem from an MODELING. individual’s internalized system of values. i. Model demonstrates what kinds of actions b. Explains individual differences in helping in particular are possible or effective in the situation; situations. conveys that helping is appropriate; and provides information about the costs and risks involved in helping. 2. Arousal and Affect CHAPTER 12: INTERGROUP CONFLICT a. Egoism - the bystanders experience sadness or Intergroup Conflict distress at seeing the other suffer, they may be - A circumstance in which groups engage in antagonistic motivated to reduce this distress. actions toward one another to control some outcome b. Empathy-Altruism Model - the bystanders important to them. experience empathy which motivates them to reduce - Conflict between groups involves competing values, beliefs, the other’s distress. and norms. c. When empathy is high, the frequency of helping is - In intergroup conflict, behavior considered appropriate by high irrespective of whether escape was easy or members of one group is often considered unacceptable by difficult; members of the other group. d. When distress is high, the frequency of helping drops off substantially when escape is easy. Development of Intergroup Conflict Bystanders leave the scene rather than help. 3. Social Norms Opposition of interest that prevent group from achieving their a. Emphasize that people help others because they goals have expectations based on previous social learning A high level of in-group identification, accompanied by or because helping is the socially appropriate ethnocentric attitude leading to discriminatory acts toward response to a given emergency situation. the other group. b. Social responsibility norm states that people are One group threatens or deprives the other group. supposed to help others who are dependent upon them. c. Reciprocity, Equity, and Social justice relates to feelings of fairness. People will help others who help them.  Causes of Conflict ○ A person or group may feel deprived when comparing themselves with another person. Social dilemma - A situation in which two or more parties Social Dominance Theory must choose between their self-interest and the interest of ○ The desire to see one’s group dominate others. the community. ○ Racism and patriarchy are derived from the basic Competition - Heightens conflict between groups. human tendency to form and maintain hierarchical Perceived injustice - and group-based systems of social organization that Misperception - tend to be oppressive. ○ Dominant groups may be unaware of inequalities in Theories of Intergroup Conflict social structures because of the advantages of their position. Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner 1979) Positioning Theory ○ Refers to a person’s self-concept derived from his ○ A conceptual and methodological tool by which to membership to a group study how psychological phenomena are produced ○ Members who strongly identify with their group tend in social interactions; to be ethnocentric. ○ Explains how groups negotiate and contest ○ Ethnocentric attitudes not only cause in-group dominance and subordinate as a result of power members to devalue and demean out-group differential in group relations; members, they also lead to discrimination–overt acts ○ Looks at the flow of talking and writing that that treat members of outgroups in an unfair and characterizes conflict between groups; disadvantageous manner. ○ Proposes the analysis using the positions of the Realistic Group Conflict Theory (Muzafer Sherif 1935) conflicting parties, speech acts, and storylines. ○ Posits that hostility between two groups results from real or perceived conflicting goals that generate Impact of Conflict on Within-Group Process intergroup competition. ○ Boys in summer camp were randomly split into two Group Cohesion groups; ○ Members will generally show higher levels of loyalty ○ The two groups had to compete with each other in a and commitment. tournament of games; Leadership Militancy ○ Very quickly, intergroup hostility emerged between ○ Competition for leadership within a group will the two camps. increase group militancy and intensify the level of Relative Deprivation Theory conflict with outside groups. ○ The feeling of deficiency based on comparison with Norms and Conformity relevant others who are seen as doing better than ○ The group typically reorder priorities and favor those yourself. behaviors that can help iit win the conflict.  Peaceful Conflict Resolution Superordinate goals ○ An objective held in common by all groups in a conflict that cannot be achieved without the supportive efforts of the other. ○ Serves as the basis for restructuring the relationship between groups. ○ It increases interactions between in-group members ○ It can generate new, superordinate social identity. Intergroup contact ○ Prolonged and personal contact with the out-group tends to produce more positive attitudes towards them. ○ It is important that the contact be of equal status. Mediation and Third Party Intervention ○ Mediators are independent third parties who help groups in conflict identify issues and agree on some resolution. They generally serve as advisors rather than as decision makers in the dispute. ○ Arbitrators are neutral third parties who has the power to decide how a conflict will be resolved.