Anthropology: A Social Science Textbook PDF

Ministry of Science and Higher Education Anthropology September 2012 Addis Ababa  Ministry of Science and Higher Education Module Title : Anthropology Prepared By : Hawassa University (HU) & Addis...

Ministry of Science and Higher Education Anthropology September 2012 Addis Ababa  Ministry of Science and Higher Education Module Title : Anthropology Prepared By : Hawassa University (HU) & Addis Ababa University (AAU) Module Writers 1. Elias Alemu (PhD, HU) 2. Dagne Shibiru (PhD, HU) 3. Getaneh Mehari (PhD, AAU) i  Anthropology Course Code: Anth101 Credit Hours: 2 ChHr Abbreviations and Acronyms FGM: Female Genital Mutilation IK: Indigenous Knowledge ii IKS: Indigenous Knowledge system MoSHE: Ministry of Science and Higher Education Module Introduction: Dear Learner! Welcome to this course, Anth101. The course is expected to acquaint you iii with essential concept of anthropology covering a wide array of questions revolving around iv our very existence. It cover issues such as what makes human beings similar to each other? How do we differ one another? What do anthropologist mean when they talk about diversity, multiculturalism, marginalization, inclusion and exclusion? The course will enable learners grasp the different ways of being human by dealing with themes such as culture, kinship, marriage, cultural relativism, ethnocentrism, humanity, human origins, cosmologies, race, ethnicity, ethnic relations, ethnic boundaries, marginalization, minorities, local systems of governance, legal pluralism, indigenous knowledge systems, and indigenous practices and development. Contents of the module: In addition to the above mentioned themes, this module comprised the following contents: scope of anthropology, braches of anthropology, unique features of anthropology, and research methods in anthropology. Delivery Methods: The teacher or course facilitator who is assigned to deliver is recommended to make use of different active learning methods including: brainstorming, question and answer, group discussion, buzz-group, cross-over, home-works, reading assignments, peer teaching, and seldom active lecturing. Modes of Assessment: To assess the progress of student, the instructor/ the course facilitator is expected to employ a continuous assessment technique in the form of quizzes, group and individual assignments, take-home exam, final exam, term paper. The purpose of using various assessment techniques is to improve the process of students’ learning. Module Learning Competencies: Up on the successful completion of the course, students will be able to:  Develop an understanding of the nature of anthropology and its broader scope in making sense of humanity in a global perspective;  Understand the cultural and biological diversity of humanity and unity in diversity across the world and in Ethiopia;  Analyze the problems of ethnocentrism against the backdrop of cultural relativism;  Realize the socially constructed nature of identities & social categories such as gender, ethnicity, race and sexuality;  Explore the various peoples and cultures of Ethiopia;  Understand the social, cultural, political, religious& economic life of different ethno- linguistic & cultural groups of Ethiopia;  Understand different forms marginalization and develop skills inclusiveness;  Appreciate the customary systems of governance and conflict resolution institutions of the various peoples of Ethiopia; v   Know about values, norms and cultural practices that maintain society together;  Recognize the culture area of peoples of Ethiopia and the forms of interaction developed over time among themselves; and  Develop broader views and skills to deal with people from a wide variety of socio- economic and cultural backgrounds. Acknowledgments: vi The writers of this would like to express their gratitude to the rest of the anthropology syllabus developing committee members at Hawassa University (Namely, Dr. Alemante Amera; Dr. Hanna Getachew and Ato Debela Gindola) for their enormous contribution throughout the preparation of this module. We would also like to thank Ato Alazar Lissanu (from Arba Minch University) for his valuable comments and proofreading of the module, and all anthropology instructors from Dessie University, Wollega University, Selale University, Gondar University, Jimma University and Mekelle University. Thank you for being with us from the very beginning. vii Contents Module Introduction.............................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgments:................................................................................................................................. v Unit One.................................................................................................................................................. 1 1. Introducing Anthropology and its Subject Matter.............................................................................. 1 1.1 Definition, Scope and Subject Matter of Anthropology................................................................... 2 1.2 Sub-fields of anthropology................................................................................................................ 6 1.3 Unique (Basic) Features of Anthropology....................................................................................... 14 1.4 Misconceptions about anthropology.............................................................................................. 16 1.5 The Relationship between Anthropology and Other Disciplines.................................................... 17 1.6 The Contributions of anthropology................................................................................................. 17 1.7. Unit Summary................................................................................................................................ 19 Unit Two................................................................................................................................................ 22 2. Human Culture and Ties that Connect............................................................................................. 22 2.1. Conceptualizing Culture: What Culture is and What Culture isn't................................................. 23 2.2 Characteristic Features of Culture.................................................................................................. 24 2.3 Aspects/Elements of Culture.......................................................................................................... 26 2.4 Cultural Unity and Variations: Universality, Generality and Particularity of Culture...................... 28 2.5. Evaluating Cultural Differences: Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism and Human Rights............. 29 2.6 Culture Change................................................................................................................................ 33 2.7 Ties That Connect: Marriage, Family and Kinship........................................................................... 35 2.8 Unit Summary................................................................................................................................. 45 Unit-Three............................................................................................................................................. 47 3. Human Diversity, Culture Areas and Contact in Ethiopia................................................................. 47 3.1. Human Beings & Being Human: What it is to be human?............................................................ 48 3.2 Origin of the Modern Human Species: Homo sapiens sapiens....................................................... 51 viii 3.3 The Kinds of Humanity: human physical variation................................................................. 56 3.4 Human Races: the history of racial typing............................................................................. 60 3.5 The Grand Illusion: Race, turns out, is arbitrary............................................................................. 62 3.6. Why is Everyone Different? Human Cultural Diversity/Variation................................................. 63 3.7.Culture area and cultural contact in Ethiopia................................................................................ 64 Unit Four............................................................................................................................................... 67 4. Marginalized, Minorities, and Vulnerable Groups................................................................ 67 4.1 Definition of concepts..................................................................................................................... 68 4.2 Gender-based marginalization........................................................................................................ 69 Female genital cutting....................................................................................................................... 70 4.3 Marginalized occupational groups........................................................................................... 72 4.4 Age-based vulnerability.................................................................................................................. 75 4.5. Religious and ethnic minorities...................................................................................................... 79 4.6. Human right approaches and inclusiveness: Anthropological perspectives................................. 80 4.7. Unit Summary................................................................................................................................ 81 Unit Five................................................................................................................................................ 83 5. Identity, Inter-Ethnic Relations and Multiculturalism in Ethiopia.................................................... 83 Contents of the Unit:............................................................................................................................ 84 Unit learning outcomes:....................................................................................................................... 84 5.1. Identity, Ethnicity and Race: Identification and Social Categorization................................ 85 5.2. Conceptualizing Ethnicity –What’s it?........................................................................................... 91 5.3. Ethnic Groups and Ethnic Identity................................................................................................. 99 5.4. Race –The Social Construction of Racial Identity......................................................................... 103 5.5. Theories of Ethnicity: Primordialism, Instrumentalism and Social Constructivism...................... 107 5.5.2. Instrumentalist (Situational) Theory of Ethnicity.................................................................. 111 5.6. Unit Summary.............................................................................................................................. 114 ix Unit Six................................................................................................................................................ 116 6. Customary and Local Governance Systems and Peace Making...................................................... 116 6.1 Indigenous and local governance................................................................................................. 117 6.2 Intra and inter-ethnic conflict resolution institutions.................................................................. 120 6.3 Inter-ethnic conflict resolution..................................................................................................... 124 6.4 Women’s role in conflict resolution and peacemaking................................................................ 125 6.5 Legal pluralism: interrelations between customary, religious and state legal systems............... 129 6.6 Unit Summary............................................................................................................................... 131 Unit Seven........................................................................................................................................... 133 7. Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) and Practices............................................................... 133 7.1. Definition of concepts................................................................................................... 134 7.2 Significance of indigenous knowledge.......................................................................................... 139 7.3. Indigenous knowledge and development.................................................................................... 141 7.4. Preservation, Challenges and Limitations of IK............................................................................ 143 7.5. The Erosion of Indigenous Knowledge Systems(IKS)................................................................... 145 7.6. Unit summary................................................................................................................... 147 x  Unit One 1. Introducing Anthropology and its Subject Matter Study Hours: 4 face-to-face hours Dear Learners! Welcome to unit one. This unit deals with anthropology's essence. In this unit, you will be introduced to define concepts crucial for grasping the meaning of anthropology. It also explains anthropology's historical development, scope, subject matter, subfields, unique features and contributions. In due course, students are required to assume active role in class activities and discussions; sharing of experiences, undertake different debates and arguments and take-home assignments. Contents of the Unit: The major topics to be treated in this unit include: Definitions, historical developments, scope, and sub-fields of anthropology. It also addresses topics such as misconceptions about anthropology and its relations with different disciplinary fields of study. Unit learning outcomes: Up on the successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:  Define the concepts in Anthropology  Understand the historical development of anthropology  Express the scope and subject matter of anthropology  Explain the sub-disciplines of anthropology  Internalize unique feature of anthropology  Convert misconception held about anthropology  Differentiate anthropology from other discipline  Appraise the relevance of anthropology in our life 1 1.1 Definition, Scope and Subject Matter of Anthropology Reflect your views on the following questions.  How do you define Anthropology?  How do you conceive the meaning of the term ‘human’? 1.1.1 Concepts in Anthropology To begin with the etymology of the term, the term anthropology is a compound of two Greek words, ‘anthropos’ and ‘logos’, which can be translated as ‘human being/mankind’ and ‘reason/study/science’, respectively. So, anthropology means ‘reason about humans’ or ‘the study or science of humankind or humanity’. Moreover, man has two important characteristics: biological and cultural: It is very important to understand that the biological and the cultural characteristics are inseparable elements. Culture influences human physical structures and the vise-versa. Hence, if we take it literally, it is the study of humans. In one sense, this is an accurate description to the extent that anthropology raises a wide variety of questions about the human condition. Yet this literal definition is not particularly illuminating; because a number of other academic disciplines—including sociology, biology, psychology, political science, economics, and history—also study human beings. What is it that distinguishes anthropology from all of these other disciplines? Anthropology is the study of people—their origins, their development, and contemporary variations, wherever and whenever they have been found. It is a broad scientific discipline dedicated to the comparative study of humans as a group, from its first appearance on earth to its present stage of development. Of all the disciplines that study humans, anthropology is by far the broadest in scope. In more specific terms, anthropology is a science which:  Investigates the strategies for living that are learned and shared by people as members of human social groups;  Examines the characteristics that human beings share as members of one species (homo sapiens) and the diverse ways that people live in different environments; 2   Analyses the products of social groups -material objects (material cultures) and non-material creations (religion/beliefs, social values, institutions, practices, etc). Anthropology is an intellectually challenging, theoretically ambitious subject, which tries to achieve an understanding of culture, society and humanity through detailed studies of community life, supplemented by comparison. At the deepest level, it raises philosophical questions, which it tries to respond to by exploring human lives under different conditions. It seeks to explain how and why people are both similar and different through examination of our biological and cultural past and comparative study of contemporary human societies. Its ultimate goal is to develop an integrated picture of humankind—a goal that encompasses an almost infinite number of questions about all aspects of our existence. We ask, for example, what makes us human? Why do some groups of people tend to be tall and lanky, while others tend to be short and stocky? Why do some groups of people practice agriculture, while others hunt for a living? As a matter of simplicity and brevity, anthropology primarily offers two kinds of insight. First, the discipline produces knowledge about the actual biological and cultural variations in the world; second, anthropology offers methods and theoretical perspectives enabling the practitioner to explore, compare, understand and solve these varied expressions of the human condition. 1.1.2 The Historical Development of Anthropology Like the other social sciences, anthropology is a fairly recent discipline. It was given its present shape during the twentieth century, but it has important forerunners in the historiography, geography, travel writing, philosophy and jurisprudence of earlier times. There are, in any case, many ways of writing the history of anthropology, just as, in any given society, there may exist competing versions of national history or origin myths, promoted by groups or individuals with diverging interests. History is not primarily a product of the past itself, but is rather shaped by the concerns of the present. As these concerns change, past events and persons shift between foreground and background, and will be understood and evaluated in new ways. If we restrict ourselves to anthropology as a scientific discipline, some would trace its roots back to the European Enlightenment, during the eighteenth century; others would claim 3 that anthropology did not arise as a science until the 1850s, yet others would argue that anthropological research in its present-day sense only commenced after the First World War. Nor can we avoid such ambiguities. It is beyond doubt, however, that anthropology, considered as the science of humanity, originated in the region we commonly but inaccurately call ‘the West’, notably in three or four ‘Western’ countries: France, Great Britain, the USA and, until the Second World War, Germany(Erikson, 2001). Historically speaking, this is a European discipline, and its practitioners, like those of all European sciences, occasionally like to trace its roots back to the ancient Greeks. The present academic anthropology has its roots in the works and ideas of the great ancient and Medieval Greek, Roman, and Hebrew philosophers and social thinkers. These people were interested in the nature, origin and destiny of man, and the morality and ethics of human relationships. While the roots of anthropology can be generally traced through the history of western culture as far back as ancient Greek social philosophical thinking, the discipline did not emerge as distinct field of study until the mid-nineteenth century. Generally speaking, anthropology as an academic discipline was born during the 19th century, out of the intellectual atmosphere of Enlightenment, which is the eighteenth century social philosophical movement that emphasized human progress and the poser of reason, and based on Darwinian Theory of Evolution. By the late 1870s, anthropology was beginning to emerge as a profession. A major impetus for its growth was the expansion of western colonial powers and their consequent desire to better understand the peoples living under colonial domination. During its formative years, anthropology became a profession primarily in museums. In this regard, in the 1870s and 1880s many museums devoted to the study of humankind were found in Europe, North America and South America. Early anthropologists mainly studied small communities in technologically simple societies. Such societies are often called by various names, such as, “traditional”, “non-industrialized and/or simple societies”. Anthropologists of the early 1900s emphasized the study of social and cultural differences among human groups. Here, many of the indigenous peoples of non-western world and their social and cultural features were studied in detail and 4 documented. This approach is called ethnography. By the mid-1900, however, anthropologists attempted to discover universal human patterns and the common bio- psychological traits that bind all human beings. This approach is called ethnology. Ethnology aims at the comparative understanding and analysis of different ethnic groups across time and space. In Ethiopia, professional anthropologists have been studying culture and society on a more intensive level only since the late 1950s. Almost inevitably, the initial emphasis was on ethnography, the description of specific customs, cultures and ways of life. 1.1.3 Scope and subject matter of anthropology Reflect your views on the following questions.  What would be the limit to study human beings?  What specific time period is the subject of its study?  Where would be the spatial boundary to study human beings?  Which human characteristic (biological or/and cultural) should be the subject of its inquiry? The breadth and depth of anthropology is immense. There no time and space left as far as man exists. In other words, the temporal dimension covers the past, the present and even the future. In terms of the spatial dimension, anthropology studies from Arctic to Desert, from Megapolis to hunting gathering areas. The discipline covers all aspects of human ways of life experiences and existence, as humans live in a social group. It touches all aspect of human conditions as far as there is a relation between human beings and natural environment and man and man. Anthropology not only tries to account for the social and cultural variation in the world, but a crucial part of the anthropological project also consists in conceptualizing and understanding similarities between social systems and human relationships. As one of the foremost anthropologists of the twentieth century, Claude Lévi-Strauss, has expressed it: ‘Anthropology has humanity as its object of research, but unlike the other human sciences, it tries to grasp its object through its most diverse manifestations’ (1983, p. 49). In other words, anthropology studies humanity with its all 5 aspects of existence, and in its all means of differences (diversity) and similarities (commonality). Where every human beinglives, there is always anthropology. The discipline is also accounting for the interrelationships between different aspects of human existence, and usually anthropologists investigate these interrelationships taking as their point of departure a detailed study of local life in a particular society or a delineated social environment. One may therefore say that anthropology asks large questions, while at the same time it draws its most important insights from small places. Although anthropologists have wide-ranging and frequently highly specialized interests, they all share a common concern in trying to understand both connections within societies and connections between societies. Such focus areas of investigation and the stated aims of the discipline convey that, the areas covered by anthropology is diverse and enormous. Anthropologists strive for an understanding of the biological and cultural origins and evolutionary development of the species. They are concerned with all humans, both past and present, as well as their behavior patterns, thought systems, and material possessions. In short, anthropology aims to describe, in the broadest sense, what it means to be human (Peacock, 1986). 1.2 Sub-fields of anthropology Reflect your views on the following questions.  Is it possible to study all aspects of human experiences?  If so, how could we study it? As discussed in the above headlining, there is no time, space and characteristics left to study human beings. It is so wide as an ocean. Accordingly, it is required to divide and understand in-depth. Accordingly, anthropology has often categorized into four majorsubfields: Physical/Biological Anthropology, Archeology, Linguistic Anthropology and Socio-Cultural Anthropology. Let us explain turn by turn. 6 1.2.1 Physical/Biological Anthropology Reflect your views on the following questions.  In what ways does man differ from other animal species?  What are the sources of biological variation?  What differentiate human body from other animals?  How humans have evolved up to the present time?  From where did we (human species) come from?  What is evolution? We hope you remember your high school science lessons on evolution. Physical anthropology is the branch of anthropology most closely related to the natural sciences, particularly biology; that is why it is often called biological anthropology. Unlike comparative biologists, physical anthropologists study how culture and environment have influenced these two areas of biological evolution and contemporary variations. Human biology affects or even explains some aspects of behavior, society, and culture like marriage patterns, sexual division of labor, gender ideology etc. The features of culture in turn have biological effects like the standards of attractiveness, food preferences, and human sexuality. Biological variations such as morphology/structure, color, and size are reflections of changes in living organism. Since change occurs in the universe, it also applies in human beings. Human biological variations are the result of the cumulative processes of invisible changes occurring in every fraction of second in human life. These changes have been accumulated and passed through genes. Genes are characteristics that carry biological traits of an organism, including human beings. The major sources of biological variations are derived from the interrelated effects of natural selection, geographical isolation, genetic mutations. Physical anthropology is essentially concerned with two broad areas of investigation: human evolution and genetics. Human evolution is the study of the gradual processes of simple 7 forms into more differentiated structures in hominid. It is interested in reconstructing the evolutionary record of the human species using fossils/bones. Human evolution is further divided into three specialties: Paleoanthropology and Primatology. Palaeoanthropology (paleo meaning “old”) is the study of human biological evolution through the analysis of fossil remains from prehistoric times to determine the missing link that connect modern human with its biological ancestors. Primatology studies about primates or recent human ancestors to explain human evolution. Primatologists study the anatomy and social behavior of such non-human primate species as gorillas and chimpanzees in an effort to gain clues about our own evolution as a species. Human genetics concerns to investigate how and why the physical traits of contemporary human populations vary throughout the world. It focuses to examine the genetic materials of an organism such as DNA and RNA. In addition, genetic studies are crucial in understanding –how evolution works and plays important role in identifying the genetic source of some hereditary disease like sickle cell anemia and cystic fibrosis. 1.2.1 Archaeological Anthropology Reflect your views on the following questions.  What do we mean by the human past?  Which discipline tells you about the human distance past?  What do we learn from our past? Archaeological anthropology or simply archaeology studies the ways of lives of past peoples by excavating and analysing the material culture/physical remains (artefacts, features and eco-facts) they left behind. Artefacts are material remains made and used by the past peoples and that can be removed from the site and taken to the laboratory for further analysis. Tools, ornaments, arrowheads, coins, and fragments of pottery are examples of artifacts. Features are like artifacts, are made or modified by past people, but they cannot be readily carried away from the site. Archaeological features include such things as house foundations, ancient buildings, fireplaces, steles, and postholes. Eco-facts are non- artefactual, organic and environmental remains such as soil, animal bones, and plant 8 remainsthat were not made or altered by humans; but were used by them. Eco-facts provide archaeologists with important data concerning the environment and how people used natural resources in the past. Archaeology has also its own subfields or areas of specialties. The most important ones are - Prehistoric Archaeology and Historical Archaeology. Prehistoric archaeology investigates human prehistory and prehistoric cultures. It focuses on entire period between 6,000 years ago and the time of the first stone tools (the first artifacts), around 2.5 million years ago, is called prehistory. Historic archaeologists help to reconstruct the cultures of people who used writing and about whom historical documents have been written. Historic archaeology takes advantage of the fact that about 6,000 years ago, some human groups invented language and began to write down things that can tell about the past. We Ethiopian have very glorious past. Area logical findings in North, south, east and western part of the country have shown our county belonged to those countries which have old civilization. Reflect your views on the following questions.  Discuss the lesson we get by studying our past?  Have you ever visited any museums in your area?  What kind of archaeological evidences are commonly found in your area?  From your observation, which evidences are similar and different to those of communities/ groups aroundyour nearby community?  Why do you think is such differences and similarities happening? 9 1.2.3 Linguistic Anthropology Reflect your views on the following questions.  Do you speak a language other than your mother tongue? If yes, what’s the similarity& difference between the languages?  What is the difference between human communication and any other animal communication?  What distinguishes human communication from any other animal communication?  What do languages functions? Indeed, linguistic anthropology or anthropological linguistics studies human language as a cultural resource and speaking as a cultural practice in its social and cultural context, across space and time. Language is basically a system of information transmission and reception. Humans communicate messages by sound (speech), by gesture (body language), and in other visual ways such as writing. Analogous to genes that carry and transmit genetic materials to offspring, languages hand down cultural traits from one generation to another. In fact, some would argue that language is the most distinctive feature of being human. Although animals could develop certain behaviors through conditioning that mimic to humans, they do not have a capacity to pass on their own offspring. This is the boundary between human beings and other animals including higher primates. Linguistic anthropology, which studies contemporary human languages as well as those of the past, is divided into four distinct branches or areas of research: Structural or Descriptive Linguistics, Historical Linguistics, Ethno-Linguistics, and Socio-linguistics. Structural /Descriptive Linguistics: -studies the structure of linguistic patterns. It examines sound systems, grammatical systems, and the meanings attached to words in specific languages to understand the structure and set of rules of given language. Every culture has a distinctive language with its own logical structure and set of rules for putting words and sounds together for the purpose of communicating. In its simplest form, the task of the 10 descriptive linguist is to compile dictionaries and grammar books for previously unwritten languages. For structuralist linguist or structural linguistic anthropologist, even if there are thousands of human languages, at least structurally all of them are similar making it possible for everyone of us to grasp and learn languages other than our so called ‘mother tongue’. Ethno-linguistics (cultural linguistics): examines the relationship between language and culture. In any language, certain cultural aspects that are emphasized (such as types of snow among the Inuit, cows among the pastoral Maasai, or automobiles in U.S. culture) are reflected in the vocabulary. Moreover, cultural linguists explore how different linguistic categories can affect how people categorize their experiences, how they think, and how they perceive the world around them. Historical linguistics: - deals with the emergence of language in general and how specific languages have diverged over time. It focuses on the comparison and classifications of different languages to differentiate the historical links between them. Socio-linguistics: -investigates linguistic variation within a given language. No language is a homogeneous system in which everyone speaks just like everyone else. One reason for variation is geography, as in regional dialects and accents. Linguistic variation also is expressed in the bilingualism of ethnic groups. Linguistic anthropology generally focuses on the evolution of languages. It tries to understand languages variation in their structures, units, and grammatical formations. It gives special attention to the study of unwritten languages. Language is a key to explore a culture. Reflect your views on the following questions.  What is relation between language and culture, and human thought patterns?  Do you think that your language changes? If so, what makes language change?  Would change in language brings any change on our identity? 11   Can we maintain our identity in state of global changes?  How can we keep our identity in state of global changes?  How does language construct identity, ideology, and narratives? 1.2.4 Socio-Cultural Anthropology Reflect your views on the following questions.  What is society and culture?  What differentiate human society from other animal society such as bees, ants, etc?  How can we study cultures? It is also often called social anthropology or cultural anthropology. Socio-cultural anthropology is the largest sub-fields of anthropology. It deals with human society and culture. Society is the group of people who have similar ways of life, but culture is a way of life of a group of people. Society and culture are two sides of the same coin. Socio-cultural anthropology describes, analyzes, interprets, and explains social, cultural and material life of contemporary human societies. It studies the social (human relations), symbolic or nonmaterial (religious, language, and any other symbols) and material (all man-made objects) lives of living peoples. Socio-cultural anthropologists engage in two aspects of study: Ethnography (based on field work) and Ethnology (based on cross-cultural comparison). Ethnography provides a comprehensive account of a particular community, society, or culture. It describes the features of specific cultures in as much detail as possible including local behavior, beliefs, customs, social life, economic activities, politics, and religion. These detailed descriptions (ethnographies) are the result of extensive field studies (usually a year or two, in duration) in which the anthropologist observes, talks to, and lives with the people he or she is studying. During ethnographic fieldwork, the anthropologist (ethnographer) gathers data 12 that he or she organizes, describes, analyzes, and interprets to build and present that account, which may be in the form of a book, article, or film. Ethnology is the comparative study of contemporary cultures and societies, wherever they may be found. It examines, interprets, analyzes, and compares the results of ethnography the data gathered in different societies. It uses such data to compare and contrast and to make generalizations about society and culture. In other words, Ethnologists seek to understand both why people today and in the recent past differ in terms of ideas and behavior patterns and what all cultures in the world have in common with one another. Looking beyond the particular to the more general, ethnologists attempt to identify and explain cultural differences and similarities, to test hypotheses, and to build theory to enhance our understanding of how social and cultural systems work. Indeed, the primary objective of ethnology is to uncover general cultural principles, the “rules” that govern human behavior. Ethnography Ethnology Requires field work to collect data Uses data collected by a series of researchers Often descriptive Usually synthetic Group/community specific Comparative/cross-cultural Socio-cultural anthropology uses ethnographical and ethnological approaches to answer all sort of questions related to culture and human societies. To properly address emerging questions related to culture and societies, it has been sub-divided into many other specialized fields as: Anthropology of Art, Medical Anthropology, Urban Anthropology, Economic Anthropology, Political Anthropology, Development Anthropology, Anthropology of Religion, Demographic Anthropology, Ecological Anthropology, Psychological Anthropology, Ethnomusicology, etc. All of them are considered to be the applied areas of anthropology. 13  Reflect your views on the following questions  From your life experiences, which sub-specialization of social- cultural anthropology could solve your community problems?  How did humankind arrive at the present stage of biological, intellectual, and cultural development?  How are different people in different places similar and different, both biologically and culturally/behaviorally?  Is there a common human nature, and if so, what is it like?  How can we explain why cultures vary? 1.3 Unique (Basic) Features of Anthropology Reflect your views on the following question.  What makes anthropology unique? Several distinguishing characteristics that identify anthropology from other discipline. Anthropology is unique in its scope, approach, focus and method of study. Anthropology has a broad scope. It is interested in all human beings, whether contemporary or past, ''primitive'' or '' civilized'' and that they are interested in many different aspects of humans, including their phenotypic characteristics, family lives, marriages, political systems, economic lives, technology, belief, health care systems, personality types, and languages. No place or time is too remote to escape the anthropologist's notice. No dimension of human kind, from genes to art styles, is outside the anthropologist's attention. Indeed, Anthropology is the broad study of human kind, around the world and throughout time. The second important feature is its approach. In its approach anthropology is holistic, relativistic, and focused one. Holistic in a sense that it looks any phenomena from different 14 vantage points. Accordingly, anthropology considers culture, history, language and biology essential to a complete understanding of society. Anthropology seeks to understand human beings as whole organisms who adapt to their environments through a complex interaction of biology and culture. The concept of relativity is highly appreciated in anthological studies. Anthropology tries to study and explain a certain belief, practice or institution of a group of people in its own context. It does not make value judgment, i.e., declaring that this belief or practice is ‘good’ or ‘bad’. Anthropology's comparative perspective helps to understand differences and similarities across time and place. Another important perspective is a way of looking at people's ideas. It considersinsiders' views as a primary focus of any anthropological inquiry. Anthropological studies give attention to how people perceive themselves and understand their world; how a particular group of people explain about their action, or give meaning to their behaviour or cultural practices. This is what anthropologists call emic perspective. It helps to understand the logic and justification behind group behavior and cultural practices. Another important unique feature is its research approach. Anthropology is highly dependent on qualitative research to understand the meaning behind any human activity. Extended fieldwork, participant observation, in-depth and key informant interviews and focus-group discussion are qualitative research instruments to explore information change and continuities in human societies. Ethnographic fieldwork is an important strategy is normally required to spend a year or more with research subjects and document realities occurring across time. For most anthropologists, fieldwork is a process requiring them to ‘tune-in; hangout; and hang-on’ to the societies and cultures whom they are interested to study. Focusing more on the local than the big social processes has been another exclusive approach in the discipline. Paying great attention to local or micro-social processes certainly help us to better understand big changes in societies. A detailed account of an event or phenomenon discovers multiple realities in a community. 15 1.4 Misconceptions about anthropology Reflect your views on the following question.  What did you hear/read about anthropology, anthropologists and the work they do? Due to lack of appropriate awareness about the nature, scope and subject matter of the discipline, different misconceptions are held about anthropology. One misconception about anthropology is related to the area of its study. It is said that anthropology is limited to the study of "primitive" societies. Indeed, most of the works done by anthropologists during early periods focused on isolated, so called "primitive", small scale societies. However, anthropologists nowadays study most advanced and most complex societies as well. Another misconception is that anthropologists only study the rural people and rural areas. As a matter of fact, most of the studies conducted during the formative years (when it undergone a process of development to be developed as a separate fields of study) of the discipline focused on rural areas. But now, anthropologists are also interested in the study of urban people and urban areas. There is a distinct sub-discipline devoted to the study of urban societies called -Urban Anthropology-which focuses on urban areas and in complex cities. It is also wrongly misconceived that anthropology is the study/analysis of fossil evidences of the proto-humans like that of Lucy/Dinkeneshe. It is true that anthropology is interested in the question of the origin of modern human beings. However, this doesn’t mean that anthropology is all about the study of human evolution. It studies both the biological and the cultural aspects of humans and examines the existing human physical and biological variations and cultural diversity. It is also misconceived that the purpose of anthropology is to study in order to keep and preserve communities far from development and obsolete cultural practices in museums. Rather, anthropologists’ duties are to support those communities' capacity to empower themselves in development processes. They assist peoples' initiatives instead of imposed 16 policies and ideas coming from outside and play active roles in bringing about positive change and development in their own lives. 1.5 The Relationship between Anthropology and Other Disciplines Reflect your views on the following question.  How do you think relations between and among different scientific disciplines be expressed?  What do you think is the relationship between anthropology and another social scientific discipline? Anthropology is similar with other social sciences such as sociology, psychology, political sciences, economics, history, etc. Anthropology greatly overlaps with these disciplines that study human society. However, anthropology differs from other social sciences and the humanities by its broad scope, unique approach, perspective, unit of analysis and methods used. In its scope, anthropology studies humankind in its entirety. In its approach, anthropology studies and analyzes human ways of life holistically, comparatively and in a relativistic manner. In its perspective, according to Richard Wilk, anthropology approaches and locates dimensions of people’s individual and communal lived experiences, their thoughts and their feelings in terms of how these dimensions are interconnected and interrelated to one another, yet not necessarily constrained or very orderly, whole. The perspective is also fundamentally empirical, naturalistic and ideographic [particularising] than nomothetic [universalising] one. In its method of research, it is unique in that it undertakes extended fieldwork among the studied community and develops intimate knowledge of the life and social worlds of its study group/society through employing those ethnographic data collection techniques such as participant observation, Key informant interview and focus group discussions. 1.6 The Contributions of anthropology 17  Reflect your views on the following question.  Being introduced to the general subject matter of anthropology and the approaches and perspectives it adheres, on what different ways could you be benefitted from learning anthropology as a common course? The philosophical underpinning is that since we are human beings, we have to know our civilization. Anthropology has established for itself the task of examining all aspects of humanity for all periods of time and for all parts of the globe. Because of the enormity of this task, anthropologists must draw on theories and data from a number of other disciplines in the humanities, the social sciences, and the physical sciences. Accordingly, its contributions are immense. By studying anthropology, we get the following benefits, among others. First, the anthropological perspective, with its emphasis on the comparative study of cultures, should lead us to the conclusion that our culture is just one way of life among many found in the world and that it represents one way (among many possible ways) to adapt to a particular set of environmental conditions. Through the process of contrasting and comparing, we gain a fuller understanding of other cultures and our own. Anthropology also helps us better understand ourselves or our own ways of life. As a mirror of human life, by studying others, we can better understand ourselves. Hence, it gives opportunity to understand and to be critical about the ways of lives of our own community. Second, anthropology gives us an insight into different ways and modes of life of human society (social and cultural diversity), which helps to understand the logic and justification behind group behavior and cultural practices. Knowledge about the rest of the world is particularly important today because the world has become increasingly interconnected. So, today it is important that we not only know something about other peoples of the world, but also grasp how our everyday decisions are influencing them in a multitude of ways and how others’ decisions are also influencing ours. Through its distinctive methodology of long-term, intensive, participant-observation research, cultural anthropology offers a unique perspective on how local cultural groups are 18 engaging with the process of globalization. Although many pundits discuss the consequences of globalization by talking to only government and business leaders, cultural anthropologists are more likely to see what is actually occurring on the ground and how the local people themselves talk about their life experiences in a time of rapid globalization. Because of its relativistic approach, anthropology helps us to be more sensitive to and appreciative of cultural diversity and variability. It helps us to avoid some of the misunderstandings that commonly arise when individuals of different cultural traditions come into contact. Anthropology helps us fight against prejudice and discriminations. It helps us fight against ethnocentrism; the belief that one's own culture and one's own way of life is superior to others cultural, social and material life. This arises from ignorance about other ethnic groups and their ways of lives. Anthropology is also used as a tool for development. Paying attention to local conditions, is crucial to solve community problems. The application of anthropological knowledge and research results have become important element to ensure people’s rights in development and able to sustain projects' life. Anthropologists are better equipped with the knowledge, skills and methods of identifying the needs and interests of local people for the betterment and change of their lived experiences. It recognizes the advantages of consulting local people to design a culturally appropriate and socially sensitive change, and protect local people from harmful policies and projects that threaten them. In general, anthropology is able to suggest sound solutions to all things human.For example, it is often applied in areas of Environmental Change, Health and Nutrition, Globalization, Social Justice and Human Rights, cultural resource management (CRM) and Cultural Dimensions of Civil and Religious Conflicts. 1.7. Unit Summary Dear Students! In this unit we have explored in a more general way the nature of anthropology as a field of inquiry. We have also seen the four common sub divisions of anthropology: physical/biological anthropology; archaeology; linguistic anthropology; and socio-cultural anthropology with their main essences and divisions. It’s also underscored that the 19 discipline, at least in its modern form, emerged in late 19th c. Europe as the science of human beings across broader spaces and times of existence. Ideally anthropologists want to know how all the aspects and elements of people’s lives are related and interconnected via carrying out extended fieldwork to collect empirical data from communities while they are in their natural setting and trying to understand the meanings people attached to events, phenomena and their ways of life. It is important to understand that there are few misconceptions about the nature, purpose and historical emergence of the discipline most ultimately based on ignorance and misundersding of historical facts. However, anthropology has successfully contributed the significance of local lives and local voices in an age of simmering waves of global forces. 1.8. Assessment Techniques The assessment methods to be used in this unit include; quiz, group assignment, individual assignments, administering different examinations and mandatory reading assignments. 1.9 Facilities required White/Blackboard, LCD/Power Point Presentations, Whiteboard Markers.… etc. 20 Suggested reading materials Eriksen, Thomas H. 2001. Small Places, Large Issues: An Introduction to Social and Cultural Anthropology. 2th ed. London: Pluto Press. Kottak, Conrad P. 2007. Mirror for humanity: A Concise Introduction to Cultural Anthropology. 5th ed. New York: McGraw- Hill. Kottak, Conrad Phillip. 2010. Window on humanity: a concise introduction to anthropology. 4thEd. New York: McGraw-Hill. Smith, Cameron M. and Davies, Evan T. 2008. Anthropology for Dummies®. Indianapolis: Wiley Publishing Inc. 21  Unit Two 2. Human Culture and Ties that Connect Study Hours: 8 face-to-face hours Dear Learners! Welcome to unit two. This unit examines the anthropological concept of culture and helps students to increase their understanding the role and impact of culture in human life. Therefore, this unit considers, the distinct qualities/characteristics features human cultures have; it explores the key components of culture that govern human behavior, explains cultural traits which are considered universals, generalities, and particularities, the idea of ethnocentrism, cultural relativism and universal human rights, the changing nature culture. Finally, this section deals with marriage, family and kinship. In due course, students are required to assume active role in class activities and discussions; sharing of experiences, undertake different debates and arguments and take-home assignments. Contents of the Unit: The major topics to be treated in this unit include: The nature, meaning, aspects and elements of the central and prominent anthropological concept called culture as both a defining and differentiating aspect of societies. Concepts such as family, marriage and kinship with some of their manifestations, classifications and dimensions are discussed herein under this unit. Unit learning outcomes: Up on the successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:  Describe the meaning, characteristics, and functions of culture  Explain aspects of culture that govern human behavior patter  Develop and understanding of accepting and respecting cultural differences  Describe the mechanisms to culture change 22   Understand the basic building blocks of human society - marriage, family, and kinship system 2.1. Conceptualizing Culture: What Culture is and What Culture isn't Reflect your views on the following questions.  How do you define culture?  What do you think are the tributes of culture?  Do you think culture differentiates human being from other animals? Definition of Culture The term culture is not used with consistent meanings. It is used with various meanings in common-sense. Anthropologists and sociologists define culture in different ways. Some of their definition have been quoted below: A widely accepted and the more comprehensive definition of culture was provided by the British anthropologist Edward B. Tylor. He defined culture as “a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”. B. Malinowski has defined culture “as cumulative creation of man". He regarded culture as the handiwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends. Robert Bierstedt says, “Culture is the complex whole that consists of everything we think and do and have as members of society.” Combining several of these definitions, we may define culture as the common way of life shared by a group of people. It includes all things beyond nature and biology. Culture therefore, is moral, intellectual and spiritual discipline for advancement, in accordance with the norms and values based on accumulated heritage. Culture is a system of learned behavior shared by and transmitted among the members of the group. 23 Culture is a collective heritage learned by individuals and passed from one generation to another. The individual receives culture as part of social heritage and in turn, may reshape the culture and introduce changes which then become part of the heritage of succeeding generations. 2.2 Characteristic Features of Culture Dear students, for the better understanding the concept of culture, it is necessary for us to know its main features. 1. Culture Is Learned: Culture is not transmitted genetically rather; it is acquired through the process of learning or interacting with one’s environment. More than any other species human relies for their survival on behavior patterns that are learned. Human have no instinct, which genetically programmed to direct to behave in a particular way. This process of acquiring culture after we born is called enculturation. Enculturation is specifically defined as the process by which an individual learns the rules and values of one’s culture. 2. Culture Is Shared: For a thing, idea, or behavior pattern to qualify as being “cultural” it must have a shared meaning by at least two people within a society. In order for a society to operate effectively, the guidelines must be shared by its members. Without shared culture members of a society would be unable to communicate and cooperates and confusion and disorder world result. 3. Culture Is Symbolic: Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to cultural learning. A symbol is something verbal or nonverbal, within a particular language or culture that comes to stand for something else.There need be no obvious, natural, or necessary connection between the symbol and what it symbolizes. A symbol’s meaning is not always obvious. However, many symbols are powerful and often trigger behaviors or emotional states. For example, the designs and colors of the flags of different countries represent symbolic associations with abstract ideas and concepts. 24  4. Culture Is All-Encompassing Culture encompasses all aspects, which affect people in their everyday lives. Culture comprises countless material and non-material aspects of human lives. Thus, when we talk about a particular people’s culture, we are referring to all of its man- made objects, ideas, activities whether those of traditional, old time things of the past or those created lately. Culture is the sum total of human creation: intellectual, technical, artistic, physical, and moral; it is the complex pattern of living that directs human social life, and which each new generation must learn and to which they eventually add with the dynamics of the social world and the changing environmental conditions. 5. Culture Is Integrated: Cultures are not haphazard collections of customs and beliefs. Instead, culture should be thought as of integrated wholes, the parts of which, to some degree, are interconnected with one another. When we view cultures as integrated systems, we can begin to see how particular culture traits fit into the whole system and, consequently, how they tend to make sense within that context. A culture is a system, change in one aspect will likely generate changes in other aspects. A good way of describing this integrated nature of culture is by using the analogy between a culture and a living organism. The physical human body comprises a number of systems, all functioning to maintain the overall health of the organisms, including among others, such system as the respiratory system, the digestive system, the skeletal system, excretory system, the reproductive system, and lymphatic system. 6. Culture Can Be Adaptive and Maladaptive: Humans have both biological and cultural ways of coping with environmental stresses. Besides our biological means of adaptation, we also use "cultural adaptive kits," which contain customary activities and tools that aid us. People adapt themselves to the environment using culture. The ability to adapt themselves to practically any ecological condition, unlike other animals, makes humans unique. Culture has allowed the global human population to grow from less than 10 million people shortly 25 after the end of the last ice age to more than 7 billion people today, a mere 10,000 years later. This ability is attributed to human’s capacity for creating and using culture. Sometimes, adaptive behaviour that offers short-term benefits to particular subgroups or individuals may harm the environment and threaten the group's long-term survival. Example: Automobiles permit us to make a living by getting us from home to workplace. But the by-products of such "beneficial" technology often create new problems. Chemical emissions increase air pollution, deplete the ozone layer, and contribute to global warming. Many cultural patterns such as overconsumption and pollution appear to be maladaptive in the long run. 7. Culture Is Dynamic: There are no cultures that remain completely static year after year. Culture is changing constantly as new ideas and new techniques are added as time passes modifying or changing the old ways. This is the characteristics of culture that stems from the culture’s cumulative quality. Reflect your views on the following questions.  How is culture learned?  What do we mean by culture is adaptive and maladaptive? 2.3 Aspects/Elements of Culture Reflect your views on the following activity  Write dawn any items/activities that show your culture. Then differentiate which one is material and non-material culture. 26 Culture is reflected through the various components that it comprises, viz., values, language, myths, customs, rituals and laws. Two of the most basic aspects of culture are material and nonmaterial culture. These are briefly explained as follows: 2.3.1 Material culture Material culture consist of man-made objects such as tools, implements, furniture, automobiles, buildings, dams, roads, bridges, and in fact, the physical substance which has been changed and used by man. It is concerned with the external, mechanical and utilitarian objects. It includes technical and material equipment. It is referred to as civilization. 2.3.2 Non – Material culture The term ‘culture’ when used in the ordinary sense, means ‘non-material culture’. It is something internal and intrinsically valuable, reflects the inward nature of man. Non- material culture consists of the words the people use or the language they speak, the beliefs they hold, values and virtues they cherish, habits they follow, rituals and practices that they do and the ceremonies they observe. It also includes our customs and tastes, attitudes and outlook, in brief, our ways of acting, feeling and thinking. Some of the aspects of non- material culture listed as follows: Values: Values are the standards by which member of a society define what is good or bad, beautiful or ugly. Every society develops both values and expectations regarding the right way to reflect them. Values are a central aspect of the nonmaterial culture of a society and are important because they influence the behavior of the members of a society. Beliefs Beliefs are cultural conventions that concern true or false assumptions, specific descriptions of the nature of the universe and humanity’s place in it. Values are generalized notions of what is good and bad; beliefs are more specific and, in form at least, have more content. “Education is good” is a fundamental value in American society, whereas “Grading is the 27 best way to evaluate students” is a belief that reflects assumptions about the most appropriate way to determine educational achievement. Norms Norms are another aspect of nonmaterial culture. Norms are shared rules or guidelines that define how people “ought” to behave under certain circumstances. Norms are generally connected to the values, beliefs, and ideologies of a society. Norms vary in terms of their importance to a culture, these are: a) Folkway: Norms guiding ordinary usages and conventions of everyday life are known as folkways. Folkways are norms that are not strictly enforced, such as not leaving your seat for an elderly people inside a bus/taxi. They may result in a person getting a bad look. b) Mores: Mores (pronounced MOR-ays) are much stronger norms than are folkways. Mores are norms that are believed to be essential to core values and we insist on conformity. A person who steals, rapes, and kills has violated some of society’s most important mores. People who violate mores are usually severely punished, although punishment for the violation of mores varies from society to society. It may take the form of ostracism, vicious gossip, public ridicule, exile, loss of one’s job, physical beating, imprisonment, commitment to a mental asylum, or even execution 2.4 Cultural Unity and Variations: Universality, Generality and Particularity of Culture In studying human diversity in time and space, anthropologists distinguish among the universal, the generalized, and the particular. Certain biological, psychological, social, and cultural features are universal (found in every culture), others are merely generalities (common to several but not all human groups), other traits are particularities (unique to certain cultural traditions). 1) Universality: 28 Universals are cultural traits that span across all cultures. Most are biologically that distinguish us from other species – Long period of infant dependency – Year-round sexuality – Complex brain that enables use of symbols, languages, and tools Social universals – Life in groups – Some kind of family – Culture organizes on social life Depends on social interactions for expression and continuation – Incest taboo – Exogamy (marriage outside one’s group). A great example of universality is that whether in Africa or Asia, Australia, or Antarctica, people understand the universal concept of family. Anthropologists would argue that it's just what we as humans do - we organize ourselves into families that are based on biology. No matter where you choose to travel and explore, you'll find a family system. 2) Generality: Generalities are cultural traits that occur in many societies but not all of them. Societies can share same beliefs and customs because of borrowing Domination (colonial rule) when customs and procedures are imposed on one culture can also cause generality Independent innovation of same cultural trait – Farming Examples: – Nuclear family Parents and children. 3) Particularity: Trait of a culture that is not widespread Cultural borrowing – traits once limited are more widespread Useful traits that don’t clash with current culture get borrowed Examples: – Food dishes Particularities are becoming rarer in some ways but also becoming more obvious Borrowed cultural traits are modified Marriage, parenthood, death, puberty, birth all celebrated differently. 2.5. Evaluating Cultural Differences: Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism and Human Rights The concepts of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism occupy key position in anthropology. 29  Reflect your views on the following questions.  Since your arrival to your college you have observed any events/activities. Would you please list dawn specific cultural differences you observed between university and home? Justify to your group member. Which event do you like and which one you don't like? Why? A. ETHNOCENTRISM: The common response in all societies to other cultures is to judge them in terms of the values and customs of their own familiar culture. Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to see the behaviors, beliefs, values, and norms of one's own group as the only right way of living and to judge others by those standards. Being fond of your own way of life and condescending or even hostile toward other cultures is normal for all people. Because of ethnocentrism, we often operate on the premise that our own society’s ways are the correct, normal, better ways, for acting, thinking, feeling and behaving. Our own group is the centre or axis of everything, and we scale and rate all others with reference to it. Ethnocentrism is not characteristic only of complex modern societies. People in small, relatively isolated societies are also ethnocentric in their views about outsiders. It is a cultural universal. Alien cultural traits are often viewed as being not just different but inferior, less sensible, and even "unnatural”. Ethnocentrism results in prejudices about people from other cultures and the rejection of their "alien ways." Our ethnocentrism can prevent us from understanding and appreciating another culture. When there is contact with people from other cultures, ethnocentrism can prevent open communication and result in misunderstanding and mistrust. This would be highly counterproductive for businessmen trying to negotiate a trade deal, professionals who work in areas other than their own or even just neighbors trying to get along with each other. The positive aspect of ethnocentrism has to do with the protection that it can provide for a culture. By causing a rejection of the foods, customs, and perceptions of people in other cultures, it acts as a conservative force in preserving traditions of one's own culture. It can help maintain the separation and uniqueness of cultures. 30  B. CULTRUALRELATIVISM: We cannot grasp the behavior of other people if we interpret what they say and do in the light of our values, beliefs, and motives. Instead, we need to examine their behavior as insiders, seeing it within the framework of their values, beliefs and motives. The concept of cultural relativism states that cultures differ, so that a cultural trait, act, or idea has no meaning but its meaning only within its cultural setting. Cultural relativism suspends judgment and views about the behavior of people from the perspective of their own culture. Every society has its own culture, which is more or less unique. Every culture contains its own unique pattern of behavior which may seem alien to people from other cultural backgrounds. We cannot understand the practices and beliefs separately from the wider culture of which they are part. A culture has to be studied in terms of its own meanings and values. Cultural relativism describes a situation where there is an attitude of respect for cultural differences rather than condemning other people's culture as uncivilized or backward. Respect for cultural differences involves:  Appreciating cultural diversity;  Accepting and respecting other cultures;  Trying to understand every culture and its elements in terms of its own context and logic;  Accepting that each body of custom has inherent dignity and meaning as the way of life of one group which has worked out to its environment, to the biological needs of its members, and to the group relationships;  Knowing that a person's own culture is only one among many; and  Recognizing that what is immoral, ethical, acceptable, etc, in one culture may not be so in another culture. C. HUMAN RIGHTS: In today's world, human rights advocates challenge many of the tenets of cultural relativism. Many anthropologists are uncomfortable with the strong form of cultural relativism that 31 suggests that all patterns of culture are equally valid. What if the people practice slavery, violence against women, torture, or genocide? Human rights: rights based on justice and morality beyond and superior to particular countries, cultures, and religions. The idea of human rights challenges cultural relativism by invoking a realm of justice and morality beyond and superior to the laws and customs of particular countries, cultures, and religions. Human rights include the right to speak freely, to hold religious beliefs without persecution, and to not be murdered, injured, or enslaved or imprisoned without charge. Such rights are seen as inalienable (nations cannot abridge or terminate them) and international (larger than and superior to individual nations and cultures). A doctrine of universal human rights, which emphasizes the rights of the individual over those of the community, would condemn such killings. Anthropologists respect human diversity. Most ethnographers try to be objective, accurate, and sensitive in their accounts of other cultures. However, their objectivity, sensitivity and a cross-cultural perspective got nothing to do with ignoring international standards of justice and morality. Go to the reference book “Mirror for Humanity” pages 50 - 52, suggested at the end of this unit and Reflect your views on the following questions.  What ideas do you understand from the topics?  Is ethnocentrism bad or good?  Is cultural relativism bad or good?  Why it is important to understand the concept of cultural relativism?  What do you think about cultural relativism and human rights? 32 2.6 Culture Change Dear student, culture changes in several ways; under this section we will discuss how and why cultures change and briefly review some of the widespread changes that have occurred in recent times. Thus, in order to learn more about culture change would you please responding to below question before we go the subsequent texts. Reflect your views on the following question  Why and how do cultures change? When you examine the history of a society, it is obvious that its culture has changed over time. Some of the shared behaviors and ideas that were common at one time are modified or replaced at another time. That is why, any anthropological account of the culture of any society is a type of snapshot view of one particular time. The anthropologists return several years after completing a cultural study, he or she would not find exactly the same situation, for there are no cultures that remain completely static year after year. Culture change can occur as a result of the following Mechanisms: i. Diffusion The source of new cultural elements in a society may also be another society. The process by which cultural elements are borrowed from another society and incorporated into the culture of the recipient group is called diffusion.  Diffusion is direct when two cultures trade with, intermarry among, or wage war on one another.  Diffusion is forced when one culture subjugates another and imposes its customs on the dominated group.  Diffusion is indirect when items or traits move from group A to group C via group B without any firsthand contact between A and C. In this case, group B might consist of traders or merchants who take products from a variety of places to new markets. Or group B might be geographically situated between A and C, so that what it gets from A eventually winds up in C, and vice versa. In today's world, much international 33  diffusion is indirect-culture spread by the mass media and advanced information technology. ii. Acculturation Is the exchange of cultural features that results when groups have continuous firsthand contact? The cultures of either or both groups may be changed by this contact. This usually happens in situations of trade or colonialism. In situations of continuous contact, cultures have also exchanged and blended foods, recipes, music, dances, clothing, tools, and technologies. iii. Invention Invention-the process by which humans innovate, creatively finding solutions to problems is a third mechanism of cultural change. Faced with comparable problems and challenges, people in different societies have innovated and changed in similar ways, which is one reason cultural generalities exist. One example is the independent invention of agriculture in the Middle East and Mexico. Over the course of human history, major innovations have spread at the expense of earlier ones. Often a major invention, such as agriculture, triggers a series of subsequent interrelated changes. Thus in both Mexico and the Middle East, agriculture led to many social, political, and legal changes, including notions of property and distinctions in wealth, class, and power. iv. Globalization The term globalization encompasses a series of processes, including diffusion and acculturation, working to promote change in a world in which nations and people are increasingly interlinked and mutually dependent. Promoting such linkages are economic and political forces, as well as modem systems of transportation and communication.Due to globalization, long-distance communication is easier, faster, and cheaper than ever, and extends to remote areas. The mass media help propel a globally spreading culture of consumption. Within nations and across their borders, the media spread information about products, services, rights, institutions, lifestyles, and the perceived costs and benefits of globalization. Emigrants transmit information and resources transnationally, as they maintain their ties with home (phoning, faxing, e-mailing, making visits, and sending 34 money). In a sense such people live multilocally-in different places and cultures at once. They learn to play various social roles and to change behavior and identity depending on the situation. 2.7 Ties That Connect: Marriage, Family and Kinship Reflect your views on the following question  What comes to your mind when you think of marriage and family? Dear student, in one way or another we touched about the importance of culture and aspects of culture in our previous discussions. In this section you will be introduced to the idea of how we as social beings organize ourselves and how the cultural rules governing our ties on marriage, family organization, residence patterns after marriage, forms of descent and descent groups, and other aspects of kinship. 2.7.1 MARRIAGE: Almost all known societies recognize marriage. The ritual of marriage marks a change in status for a man and a woman and the acceptance by society of the new family that is formed. The term marriage is not an easy terms to define. For years, anthropologists have attempted to define these terms in such a way to cover all known societies. Frequently, anthropologists have debated whether or not families and the institutions of marriage are universals. One interesting case is that the Nayar of Southern India, did not have marriage in the conventional sense of the term. Although teenage Nayar girls took a ritual husband in a public ceremony, the husband took no responsibility for the women after the ceremony, and frequently he never saw her again. Thus the Nayar do not have marriage according to our definition in that there is no economic, cooperation, regulation of sexual activity, cohabitation, or expectation of permanency. 2.7.1.1 Rules of Marriage 35 Societies also have rules that state whom one can and cannot marry. Every society know to anthropology has established for itself some type of rules regulating mating (sexual intercourse). The most common form of prohibition is mating with certain type of kin that are defined by the society as being inappropriate sexual partners. These prohibitions on mating with certain categories of relatives known as incest taboos. The most universal form of incest taboo involves mating between members of the immediate (nuclear) family: mother-sons, father-daughters, and brother-sisters. There are a few striking examples of marriage between members of the immediate family that violate the universality of the incest taboo. For political, religious, or economic reasons, members of the royal families among the ancient Egyptians, Incas and Hawaiians were permitted to mate with and marry their siblings, although this practiced did not extended to the ordinary members of those societies. Marriage is, therefore, a permanent legal union between a man and a woman. It is an important institution without which the society could never be sustained. 2.7.1.2 Mate Selection: Whom Should You Marry? In a society one cannot marry anyone whom he or she likes. There are certain strict rules and regulations. a) Exogamy: This is the rule by which a man is not allowed to marry someone from his own social group. Such prohibited union is designated as incest. Incest is often considered as sin. Different scholars had tried to find out the explanation behind this prohibition. i.e. how incest taboo came into operation. In fact, there are some definite reasons for which practice of exogamy got approval. They are: A conception of blood relation prevails among the members of a group. Therefore, marriage within the group-members is considered a marriage between a brother and sister 36  Attraction between a male and female gets lost due to close relationship in a small group. There is a popular idea that a great increase of energy and vigor is possible in the progeny if marriage binds two extremely distant persons who possess no kin relation among them. Kottak claimed also that exogamy has adaptive value, because it links people into a wider social network that nurtures, helps, and protects them in times of need pushing social organization outward, establishing and preserving alliances among groups. b) Endogamy: A rule of endogamy requires individuals to marry within their own group and forbids them to marry outside it. Religious groups such as the Amish, Mormons, Catholics, and Jews have rules of endogamy, though these are often violated when marriage take place outside the group. Castes in India and Nepal are also endogamous. “Indeed, most cultures are endogamous units, although they usually do not need a formal rule requiring people to marry someone from their own society” (Kottak, 2017: 150). c) Preferential Cousin Marriage: A common form of preferred marriage is called preferential cousin marriage and is practiced in one form or another in most of the major regions of the world. Kinship systems based on lineages distinguish between two different types of first cousins, these are: Cross Cousins: are children of siblings of the opposite sex- that is one’s mother’s brothers’ children and one’s father’s sisters’ children. The most common form of preferential cousin marriage is between cross cousins because it functions to strengthen and maintain ties between kin groups established by the marriages that took place in the proceeding generation. Parallel Cousins: When marriage takes place between the children of the siblings of the same sex, it is called parallel cousin marriage. are children of siblings of the same sex, namely the children of one’s mother’s sister and one’s father brother. The mate may come either from one’s father’s brother’s children or mother's sister’s children. 37 A much less common form of cousin marriage is between parallel cousins, the child of one’s mother’s sister or father’s brother. Found among some Arabic societies in North Africa, it involves the marriage of a man to his father’s brother’s daughter. Since parallel cousins belong to the same family, such a practice can serve to prevent the fragmentation of family property. d) The Levirate and Sororate Another form of mate selection that tends to limit individual choice are those that require a person to marry the husband or wide of deceased kin. The levirate- is the custom whereby a widow is expected to marry the brother (or some close male relative) of her dead husband. Usually any children fathered by the woman’s new husband are considered to belong legally to the dead brother rather than to the actual genitor. Such a custom both serves as a form of social security for the widow and her children and preserved the rights of her husband’s family to her sexuality and future children. The sororate, which comes into play when a wife dies, is the practice of a widower’s marrying the sister (or some close female relative) of his deceased wife. In the event that the deceased spouse has no sibling, the family of the deceased is under a general obligation to supply some equivalent relative as a substitute. For example, in a society that practice sororate, a widower may be given as a substitute wife the daughter of his deceased wife’s brother. 2.7.1.3. NUMBER OF SPOUSES Societies have rules regulating whom one may/may not marry; they have rules specifying how manymates a person may/should have.  Monogamy: the marriage of one man to one woman at a time.  Polygamy i.e. marriage of a man or woman with two or more mates. Polygamy can be of two types:  Polygyny: the marriage of a man to two or more women at a time.  Polyandy: the marraige of a woman to two or more men at a time 38   Marriage of a man with two or more sisters at a time is called sororal polygyny. When the co-wives are not sisters, the marriage is termed as non- sororal polygyny. Advantages & Disadvantages of Polygamy marrige  Having two/more wives is often seen as a sign of pristige.  Having multiple wives means wealth, power, & status both for the polygnous husband, wives and children.  It produces more children, who are considered valuable for future economic and poltical assets.  Economic advantage: It encourages to work hard (more cows, goats..) for more wives  The Drawbacks of Polygyny:Jealousy among the co-wives who fequently compete for the husband’s attenttion. 2.7.1.4 Economic Consideration of Marriage Most societies view as a binding contract between at least the husband and wife and, in many cases, between their respective families as well. Such a contract includes the transfer of certain rights between the parties involved: rights of sexual access, legal rights to children, and rights of the spouses to each other’s economic goods and services. Often the transfer of rights is accompanied by the transfer of some type of economic consideration. These transactions, which may take place either before or after the marriage can be divided into three categories: 1. Bride Price 2. Bride Service 3. Dowry 1. Bride Price: It is also known as bridewealth, is the compensation given upon marriage by the family of the groom to the family of the bride. According to Murdock, in Africa it was estimated that 82% of the societies require the payment of bride price. 39 Anthropologists identified a number of important functions that the institutions of bride price performed for the well-being of the society. For example, bride price has been seen:- as security or insurance for the good treatment of the wife: as mechanism to stabilize marriage by reducing the possibility of divorce: as a form of compensation to the bride’s lineage for the loss of her economic potential and childbearing capacity: and as a symbol of the union between two large groups of kin. 2. Bride Service: When the groom works for his wife’s family, this is known as bride service. It may be recalled that in the Old Testament, Jacob labored for seven years in order to marry Leah, and then another seven years to marry Rachel; Leah’s younger sister, thus performed fourteen years of bride service for his father-in-law. Bride service was also practiced by the Yanomamo, a people living in the low- lands of Venezuela. During this time, the groom lives with the bride’s parents and hunts for them. 3. Dowry: A dowry involves a transfer of goods or money in the opposite direction, from the bride's family to the groom’s family. 2.7.1.5 Post-Marital Residence Where the newly married couple lives after the marriage ritual is governed by cultural rules, which are referred to as post-marital residence rule.  Patrilocal Residence: the married couple lives with or near the relatives of the husband’s father.  Matrilocal Residence: the married couple lives with or near the relatives of the wife.  Avunculocal Residence: The married couple lives with or near the husband’s mother’s brother.  Ambilocal/Bilocal Residence: The married couple has a choice of living with relatives of the wife or relatives of the husband  Neolocal Residence: The Married couple forms an independent place of residence away from the relatives of either spouse. 40  Reflect your views on the following issue  Please take 15 minutes and write the major types of marriage and a kind of residential place a married couple will take in your locality. And share it with your classmates. 2.7.2 FAMILY Family is the basis of human society. It is the most important primary group in society. The family, as an institution, is universal. It is the most permanent and most pervasive of all social institutions. The interpersonal relationships within the family make the family an endurable social unit. Cultural anthropologists have identified two fundamentally different types of family structure-the nuclear family and the extended family. 1. The Nuclear Family: Consisting of husband and wife and their children, the nuclear family is a two-generation family formed around the conjugal or marital union. Even though the unclear family to some degree is part of a larger family structure, it remains relatively autonomous and independent unity. That is, the everyday needs of economic support, childcare, and social interaction are met within the nuclear family itself rather than by a wider set of relatives. In those societies based on the nuclear family, it is customary for married couple to live apart from either set of parents (neolocal residence), nor is there any particular obligation or expectation for the married couple to care for their aging parents in their own homes. Generally, parents are not actively involved in mate selection for their children, in no way legitimize the marriages of their children, in no way legitimize the marriages of their children, and have no control over whether or not their children remain married. 2. The Extended Family In societies based on extended families, blood ties are more important than ties of marriage. Extended families consist of two or more families that are linked by blood ties. Most commonly, this takes the form of a married couple living with one or more of their 41 married children in a single household or homestead and under the authority of a family head. In the case of a patrilineal extended family, the young couple takes up residence in the homestead of the husband’s father, and the husband continues to work for his father, who also runs the household. Moreover, most of the personal property in the household is not owned by the newlyweds, but is controlled by the husbands’ father. It is important to point out that in extended family systems, marriage is viewed more as bringing a daughter into the family than acquiring a wife. In other words, a man’s obligations of obedience to his father and loyalty to his brothers is far more important than his relationship to his wife. When a woman marries into an extended family, she most often comes under the control of her mother-in-law, who allocates chores and supervises her domestic activities. As geographical mobility are more likely associated with nuclear family than with extended family. There is a rough correlation found between extended family system and an agricultural way of life. 2.7.2.1 Functions Marriage and Family Family performs certain specific functions which can be mentioned as follows: 1. Biological Function: The institution of marriage and family serves biological (sexual and reproductive) function. The institution of marriage regulates and socially validates long term, sexual relations between males and females. Thus, husband wife relationship come into existence and become a socially approved means to control sexual relation and a socially approved basis of the family. Sexual cohabitation between spouses automatically leads to the birth of off-springs. The task of perpetuating the population of a society is an important function of a family. Society reproduces itself through family. 2. Economic Function: Marriage brings economic co-operation between men and women and ensure survival of individuals in a society. With the birth of off-springs the division of labor based on sex and generation come into play. In small scale societies family is a self-contained economic unit of production, consumption and distribution.