SOCI LEC 5-8 PDF

What is research? Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested” (Leedy and Ormrod 1994, 4). According to Dawson (2019),a research methodology is the primary prin...

What is research? Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested” (Leedy and Ormrod 1994, 4). According to Dawson (2019),a research methodology is the primary principle that will guide your research. It becomes the general approach in conducting research on your topic and determines what research method you will use. A research methodology is different from a research method because research methods are the tools you use to gather your data (Dawson, 2019). Types of Research Qualitative Quantitative Research Philosophy Sometimes referred to as research paradigms The underlying body of beliefs of assumptions that guide the methodology and methods of conducting research. Two important pillars of research philosophy are epistemology and ontology. Benefits of research 1) Helps in getting a deeper understanding of the subject. 2) Light is shed on its varied aspects and its different sources like primary and secondary sources of data. 3) Helps to resolve the complex problems in any field through critical analysis and measurement of unsolved problems. 4) It sheds light on hypothesis creation (by weighing preserved assumptions) 5 Basic Steps of the Scientific Method 1) Make an observation (problem). 2) Ask a measurable research question. 3) Form a hypothesis, or testable explanation. 4) Make a prediction based on the hypothesis. 5) Test the prediction. 6) Iterate: use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions (research is cyclical). What is Research Design? The research design is the “blueprint” that enables the investigator to come up with solutions to the following questions: Whom shall I study? What shall I observe? When will observations be made? How will data be collected? The research design guides the researcher in the various stages of the research (Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias 2005, 99. Four Basic Research Designs Descriptive e.g. censuses Survey-explanatory and attitudinal Correlational- measurement of relationships in a specific population Experimental (true)-control and experimental groups Factors Influencing Choice of Research Methods Adoption of the scientific approach to understanding social phenomena Research philosophy (ontology and epistemology)/sociological perspective or worldview (macro vs. micro) Research approach (i.e. Deductive or Inductive) Type of data required (descriptive or inferential[relationship vs. Group difference]) Deductive Reasoning Steps. Data Collection Approaches Monomethod-one, e.g. a questionnaire Multimethod-two or more methods of the same kind, e.g. a questionnaire and official statistics Primary Methods Used to collect original data They could be quantitative (questionnaire or survey) Involves sampling from the population or sampling frame (probability or random) Probability samples e.g. simple random, systematic random, stratified random, cluster random and multi-stage  Adv and Disadv of Probability Sampling, Data and Data Analysis Advantages Disadvantages Representativeness (internal validity) Biased samples Generalizability (external validity) Superficial data Practicality (quiet and easy) Reliability Data Analysis: Descriptive *LECTURE 5. SLIDES 25 – 29 Quantitative Research – Primary Data Statistics Statistics are a key part of quantitative research. Statistics is the collection and analysis of numerical data, in order to observe trends, and make inferences. These can go on to inform policy and practice. Example Official Statistics Types 1) birth (vital event) 2) marriage (vital event) 3) death (vital event) 4) crime 5) Suicide 6) unemployment , employment, earnings (labour market) Uses of Official Statistics Identify social issues/problems. Develop social theories and/or explanations for social issues. Conduct further research into particular social issues.E.g. examining the meaning and reasons behind crime Link social identity to life chances Examine the impact of political and economic factors on norms and values Adv of Statistics Easily accessible data source- saves time and costs Can provide a good 'overview' or 'snapshot' of current society. Sociologists can have data on very large samples that might be impossible for them to collect themselves. Data is collected fairly and with care as there are strict rules on surveys and data collection. Sociologists can easily identify trends over time; e.g. by comparing the results of the 2021 Census to the 1921 Census. Comparisons can be made, both between groups e.g. the working-class and middle- class) and cross-culturally (e.g. crime rates in the UK and France). Governments collect data on issues private companies may avoid, due to lack of profitability. Can point out how public bodies (such as hospitals, schools, and the police) are performing. The validity of official statistics can be improved when combined with qualitative interview data Limitations 1) May lack objectivity (due to social construction and political bias) 2) Are not very detailed. 3) Comparisons can be made only if the sociologist defines concepts in the same way as government does e.g. unemployment and poverty. 4) May not measure reality completely e.g. empty-shell marriages are not recorded in marital break-up/ 5) May exaggerate social problems e.g. crime as some groups may be over- represented. Positivism and Statistics Reliable and generalizable Patterns and trends detection May suggest new issues and links Demonstrates the complexity of social life e.g. moderating and mediating factors e.g. crime, health and social class Marxist Critique of Statistical Data Can hide the truth e.g. official statistics that harm the elite and powerful e.g. white- collar and financial crimes, are not well represented and working-class crimes' such as theft and vandalism are over-reported and targeted. Can have political biases and agendas and may not be completely reliable or valid. Distortion- government can choose which statistics to publish/not publish. Interpretivists Partial reality-do not explain the meanings behind changes in behaviour e.g. crime is not objectively defined. What is Qualitative Research? “Qualitative research seeks to understand and interpret personal experiences to explain social phenomena, including those related to health. It can address questions that quantitative research cannot, such as why people do not adhere to a treatment regimen or why a certain healthcare intervention is successful.” (Huston and Rowan, 1998) The collecting and analysing of non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research. Builds off of interpretivism proposed by Max Weber. Metthods od Data Collection Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes Participant observation Non-participant observation Interviews: Primary data collection that involves directly asking questions of participants, and building rapport and conversation for data collection Unstructured interviews Semi-structured interviews Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people with similar backgrounds of interest Allows for peer directed conversation that forms the basis of data for study. Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc. Samplingg in Qualitative Research Probability vs. non-probability sampling Purposive or Judgmental/Selective sampling Quota sampling Snowball sampling Adv and Disadvof Qualitative Research ADV DISADV Flexibility Unreliability The data collection and analysis process The real-world setting often makes can be adapted as new ideas or patterns qualitative research unreliable because emerge. They are not rigidly decided of uncontrolled factors that affect the beforehand. data. Natural settings Subjectivity Data collection occurs in real-world The researcher decides what is important contexts or in naturalistic ways and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly. Meaningful insights Limited generalizability Detailed descriptions of people’s Smaller samples are often used to gather experiences, feelings and perceptions detailed data about specific contexts. can be used in designing, testing or Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it improving systems or products. is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because of the perceived bias of the data and unrepresentativeness of the wider population. Generation of new ideas Labor-intensive Open-ended responses mean that The data collection and analysis researchers can uncover novel problems processes require large amounts of time or opportunities that they wouldn’t have and effort. thought of otherwise. Research Design The research design is the “blueprint” that enables the investigator to come up with solutions to the following questions: Whom shall I study? What shall I observe? When will observations be made? How will data be collected? The research design guides the researcher in the various stages of the research (Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias 2005, 99). Qualitative Research Designs 1. Grounded theory-collects rich data on a topic of interest and develop theories inductively. (Glaser and Strauss 1967) 2. Ethnography-researchers immerse themselves in groups or organizations to understand their cultures. E.g. Liebow’s street corner men 3. Action research-researchers and participants collaboratively link theory to practice to drive social change. (Kurt Lewin) 4. Phenomenology- investigates a phenomenon or event by describing and interpreting participants’ lived experiences. E.g. transcendental, existential and hermeneutic. (Husserl 1901, Heidegger 1994 and van Manen 1990) 5. Narrative -examines how stories are told to understand how participants perceive and make sense of their experiences. Qualitative Sampling – Non-Probability Sampling 1. Purposive- selection based on the researcher’s rationale for being the most informative 2. Criterion-selection based on pre-identified factors e.g.v 3. Convenience sampling- selection based on availability. 4. Snowball-selection by referral from other participants or people who know potential participants. 5. Extreme case- targeted selection of rare cases. 6. Typical case-selection based on regular or average participants. Data Analysis Approach When to Use Exxample Content Analysis To describe and categorize A market researcher could common words, phrases, perform content analysis and ideas in qualitative to find out what kind of data. language is used in descriptions of therapeutic apps. Thematic Analysis To identify and interpret A psychologist could apply patterns and themes in thematic analysis to travel qualitative data. blogs to explore how tourism shapes self- identity. Textual analysis To examine the content, A media researcher could structure, and design of use textual analysis to texts. understand how news coverage of celebrities has changed in the past decade. Discourse analysis To study communication A political scientist could and how language is used use discourse analysis to to achieve effects in study how politicians specific contexts. generate trust in election campaigns. Criteria for Evaluating Research Quantitative Research Qualitative Research Internal validity – the extent to which Credibility – ensuring the accuracy and causality is truly determined in a study. truth of the findings. External validity – the generalizability of a Transferability – the extent to which the study. findings and conclusions can be applied to other settings or contexts. Reliability – the consistency and Dependability – reproducibility and reproducibility of the measurement proper procedure of the research. instrument. Objectivity – the impartiality and Confirmability – the accuracy of the data neutrality of the research process. in relation to issues of bias. Strategies for Improving Trustworthiness Triangulation: Triangulation involves using multiple data collection methods to increase the likelihood of getting a reliable and accurate result. Peer examination: A peer can review results to ensure the data is consistent with the findings. Thick or rich description: This is a detailed and thorough description of details, the setting, and quotes from participants in the research. Audit trail: An audit trail provides a documented set of steps of how the participants were selected and the data was collected. Member-checking – Confirming your findings with the participants from whom you collected data. Reflexivity – self-reporting the positionality and subjectivity of the researcher. Allows for transparency and accountability of the research in relation to the research process. Other challenges Hawthorne effect: The effect is the change in participant behavior when they know they are being observed. Observer-expectancy effect: Some participants change their behavior or responses to satisfy the researcher's desired effect. This happens unconsciously for the participant, so it is essential to eliminate or limit the transmission of the researcher's views. Artificial scenario effect: Some qualitative research occurs in contrived scenarios with preset goals. In such situations, the information may not be accurate because of the artificial nature of the scenario. The preset goals may limit the qualitative information obtained.