Sociology 100 Notes: Chapter 1-4 PDF

Sociology 100 Notes Chapter 1: What is Sociology and how did it begin? Sociologists notice social patterns: They recognize that our personal experiences are affected by our social location (age, sex, class, ethnicity, “race”, religion, and sexual orientation). They investigate a...

Sociology 100 Notes Chapter 1: What is Sociology and how did it begin? Sociologists notice social patterns: They recognize that our personal experiences are affected by our social location (age, sex, class, ethnicity, “race”, religion, and sexual orientation). They investigate and challenge the social patterns that other people perceive, for example, that all male nurses are gay (e.g. Meet the Parents [2000} movie). Sociologists discuss social issues: Sociological research enables us to discuss social issues, such as the legalization of marijuana, in an informed and critical manner It helps us understand how socializing influences shape our opinions It allows us to challenge perceptions such as stereotypes Sociology involves looking for and looking at social patterns in: Social variables such as age, gender, “race”, ethnicity, religion, ability, and sexual orientation Social institutions such as education, religion, and the family Social interactions Sociology is a social science: Sociology has a lot in common with other social sciences such as anthropology, economics, history, psychology, philosophy and political science C Wright Mills coined the term “sociological imagination” Society, not the individual is the primary focus The sociological imagination allows us to understand individuals’ circumstances as shaped by social forces The sociological imagination helps us to understand the connections between political and the personal. In many ways, these are interlinked. The Origins of Sociology Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), an Arab scholar, was the first person to carry out a systematic study of sociological subjects In his book An Introduction to History, he developed a systematic approach to studying various types of societies and their histories, cultures, and economies Sociology emerged as an area of academic interest in France, Germany, and Britain during the 19th century It developed as a response to dramatic social changes such as: ○ Industrialization ○ Urbanization ○ Population increases Max Weber: A founder of Modern Sociology German sociologist Weber explored how a set of values embodied in early Protestantism, specifically the Protestant (work) ethic led to the development of modern capitalism However there is no sociological evidence that capitalism developed primarily in Protestant countries or that other religions do not display a similar work ethic Latin American scholars argue that capitalism is rooted in colonialism and colonial exploitation The spread of sociology to north america Sociology emerged in north america during the late 19th/early 20th century North american sociologists sought to understand rapid social changes linked to european immigration The university of chicago’s sociology department founded in 1892 is the first sociology department in North America In the 1920s and 1930s, the “Chicago School” produced several prominent sociologists In canada the first sociology department was founded in 1922 by Carl Addington Dawson at McGill University At the same time the sociological tradition of political economy emerged at the University of Toronto, Harold Innis was a pioneer in this field Samuels Delbert Clark made significant contributions to… John Porter (1921-1979) Examined the relationship between social class and ethnicity  Coined the term “vertical mosaic” to describe the hierarchical stratification of racial, ethnic, and religious groups due to systemic discrimination Potter found that Anigo-Saxon Protestants occupied the top of the hierarchy, followed by French Canadians while racially marginalized groups concentrate at the bottom of the hierarchy Early Women Sociologists and the Writing of gender in Canada Annie Marie MacLean (1870-1934) ○ First Canadian woman to obtain a PhD in sociology (University of Chicago) The Growth of Sociology in Canada Sociology did not become a significant area of study in Canada until the 1960s and 1970s Most sociologist during this period were hired from the United States and Britain and sociology textbooks lacked Canadian perspectives This led to a push to Canadianize sociology textbooks Tody most introductory sociology textbooks are Canadian in origin; however, there is still a underrepresentation of Indigenous sociologists in theses books Types of Sociology Sociology as a discipline did not develop uniformly, but diversified into different schools, for example: Sociology by Approach ○ Is the traditional way of representing different kinds of sociology used by sociologist to pursue their inquires: Structural Functionalism Conflict Theory Symbolic Interaction Feminist Theory Postmodern Theory Macrosociology Focuses on the “big picture” of society and its intuitions ○ E.g. structural functionalism, conflict theory, feminist theory, postmodern theory Microsociology Focuses on the plans, motivations, and actions of individuals and small groups ○ E.g. symbolic interactionism Structural Functionalism Key representatives: Emile Durkheim, Robert Merton, and Talcott Parsons Uses an organic or biological analogy for society ○ Identifies the various structures of society (e.g. the family), and describes the functions the structure performs to maintain the entire social system and produce social cohesion Focuses on explaining social form and their contributions to social cohesion over conflict and social change This approach has fallen out of favour amongst most practising sociologists Durkheim and Social Facts Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) One of the founders of sociology Coined the term social fact ○ Social facts are patterned ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside of any one individual but exert social control over people ○ Social facts allow sociologists to examine larger social forms rather than focusing on individuals Examples of social facts: getting married before having kids, have to go to university to be successful Merton’s Manifest and Latent Functions Robert K. Merton (1910-2003) was a major contributor to functionalist thinking, he identified three types of functions: ○ Manifest Functions: intended and readily recognized E.g. religion fufills spiritual and emotional needs University serves the purpose to learn ○ Latent Functions: unintended and unrecognized E.g. Religion creates a support network University can result in finding a significant other ○ Latent Dysfunctions: unintended and produce socially negative consequences E.g. religion provides justification for judging outsiders negatively Conflict Theory Is based on the idea that conflict exists in all large societies due to class division and is the motor of major socio-historical change Conflict theory is based on the four C’s 1. Conflict: exists in all large societies 2. Class: has existed in every society 3. Contestation: functions can be contested by asking “what group does this function best serve?” 4. Change: society either will or should be changed Karl Marx (1818-1883) is a major figure in the early history of sociology he believed that: Society is a hierarchy and each group’s position in the hierarchy is determined by the group’s role in production of wealth Marx saw conflict between the bourgeoisie (the capitalists) and the proletariat (the workers), which would initiate a socialist revolution that would produce an egailatirain (classless) society Marx’s insights about class conflict and capitalist production are still valid and conflict theory found new applications in feminist sociology, queer theory, and anti-colonialism, and other critical sociology approaches Symbolic Interactionism George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)  Examined socialization, the development of the self, and social roles in the context of human interaction Herbert Blumer (1900-1987) Coined the term symbolic interaction Individuals and groups create and maintain social systems through interaction The symbolic interaction approach looks at the meaning (the symbolic part) of the daily social interactions of individuals Erving Goffman (1922-1982) Canadian sociologist Coined the term total institution (e.g. prisons, boarding schools, concentration camps), which seeks to regulate, control, and manipulate its residents Feminist Theory Rooted in conflict theory Feminist theories address issues of systematic discrimination against women Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) is arguably one of western Europe first feminist analysts Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) is one of the first sociologists to systematically examine women’s roles in society Dorothy Smith (b. 1926) Developed standpoint theory out of her own discrimination in the academic community Standpoint theory challenges objective analysis Knowledge is always developed from a particular standpoint or lived experience The everyday Feminism “Waves” First Wave: campaign for civil and political rights Rights to vote and hold political office (1900) Second Wave: focus on public and private rights Fight for equality in the home and the workplace (1960s) Third Wave: inclusion of LGBTI and racialized individuals (1980s) Today the feminist movement is drawing attention to issues such as sexual harrassment and violence, online bullying and shaminf and media representations of women Postmodern Theory Seeks to include a diversity of voices, especially those that are often drowned out by powerful voice of dominant groups (white, heterosexual, middle and upper-class men) Michel Foucault (1926-1984) Discourses are distinct ways of speaking about some element of reality Totalitarian it describes a set of beliefs or ideas that dominates (“totally”) all others Totalitarian discourse refers to any universal claim about how knowledge or understanding is achieved Sociology by Audience Sociology as a discipline can also be categorized based on the audience for whom the work is intended Chapter 2: Social Research Methods Research Methodology the system of methods a researcher uses to gather data on a particular research question A contested field in sociology The Scientific Method As a social science, sociology employs the scientific method which is a series of steps leading to proof. The steps are as follows: - Observation - Identify a research question - Conduct background research - Formulate a hypothesis - Select a research design - Gather data - Analyze data - Revise hypothesis or present results Social Science Debate #1: Insider versus Outsider Perspectives French philosopher August Comte (1798-1857) coined the term sociology and Comte’s sociology was rooted in positivism ○ Positivism is the belief that the social sciences could be studied using the methods natural sciences (i.e. experiment, measurement, and systematic observation). Assumes that researchers are objective Comte viewed the outsider as the “expert” who occupies a privileged position over the insider “subjects of study” The outside expert ideal would be an example of policy sociology Critical sociologists like Dorothy Smith and Michel Foucault challenged the notion of the objective outsider and stressed the unique role of the insider perspective Standpoint theory, for example, states that the social location of sociologists impacts the questions they ask and the answers they reveive The insider voice of the subject being studied provides information that comes from their subjective experience The objective outsider experts use their privilege to decide over the authenticity of the insider perspective, this is where vital information get lost Quantitative research focuses on social elements that can be counted or measured, which can therefore be used to generate statistics (macrosociologists approach) ○ E.g. surveys, polls, questionnaires Qualitative research is the close examination of characteristics that cannot be counted or measured (microsociologists approach) ○ E.g. ethnography Many researchers today embrace triangulation, or a mixed-methods approach when completing research Qualitative Research - Permits subjectivity on the pat of both researcher and research subject - Qualitative methods includes: - Ethnography - Seeks to uncover symbols and categories members of the given culture use to interpret their world - Participant observation: observing people and actively participating in their activities to obtain an insider’s perspective - Semi-structured interviews: informal, face-to-face interviews  - Informants: insiders who help the researcher in becoming accepted by the community and assist with the interpretation of information and behaviour - Institutional ethnography - (developed by Dorothy Smith) recognizes that every institution has two sides, each associated with a different kind of data: 1. Ruling interests are the interests of the organization, particularly its administration, and/or the interests of those who hold power in society. Written rules and practices (texts) provide the data - Ruling relations are activated when workers follow rules and practices (i.e. they serve the needs of the organization) 2. Experimental data come from informants: anyone who works for the organization, outside of management - Case study approach - A research design that takes as its subject a single case or a few selected examples of a social entity such as: - Community - Family - Roles - Relationship - Often used to identify and describe best practices–strategies with a proven history of achieving desired results - Narratives - The stories people tell about themselves, their situations, and others around them - Voice is the expression of a unique viewpoint from a particular social location (influenced by gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, etc.) - Narratives can give voice to people who do not usually get to speak directly in research - Purest form of the insider review - Content analysis - Studying a set of cultural artifacts (e.g. newspaper articles, billboards, artwork or children’s books) or events and interpreting the themes they reflect - These items have 2 distinct properties:  1. They are not created for specifically to be studied 2. Data are pre-existing and non-interactive - For example, feminist approaches seek to reveal the gendered aspects of culture, such as patriarchy and misogyny - Irving goffman’s gendered advertisements (1976) is a classic content analysis of commercial pictures depicting gendered assumptions in print media - Discourse analysis - There are two types of discourse analysis used by sociologists: 1. Analyzing discourse as the term is commonly understood (i.e. as a conversation, a speech, or a written text) 2. Discourse analysis considers a broader definition of “text”, going beyond individual works and authors to include larger fields - A discourse is a conceptual framework with its own internal logic and underlying assumptions that are generally recognizable - A field comprises all known discourses on a particular cultural concepts, such as masulinity - Genealogy - A method of examining the history of the second type of discourse defined above. It seeks to trace the origins and histories of modern discourses - E.g. edward said’s orientalism (1979), which is the western fascination with or romanticization of “exotic” Middle and Far Eastern cultures Quantitative Research Understanding Statistics Statistics is a science that, in sociology, involves the use of numbers to map social behaviour and beliefs ○ It is the only science that enables different experts using the same figures to draw different conclusions However many of the topics that sociologists research, (e.g. poverty, abuse, social class) are theoretical in nature and thus difficult to define Measuring the Centre: The Median, the Average, and the Mean  A measure of centre is a way of taking all of the data you have gathered on a particular subject and finding the most representative result Measures of central tendency: ○ Median represents the number, score, or result that separates the higher half from the lower half og a given data set (e.g. in the series {6, 8, 10, 11, 14, 16, 18} 11 is the median) ○ Mean (average) can be found by adding up all the scores and dividing the total by the number of scores you have (e.g. 6+8+10+11+14+16+18=83÷7=11.9 Using Operational Definitions Operational definitions transform abstract or theoretical concepts like “poverty” or “middle class” into concrete, observable, measurable entities A variable is a concept with measurable traits or characteristics that can vary or change from one person, group, culture, or time to another Measuring Poverty: Operational Definitions in Action Absolute poverty: anything below the minimum income level needed to secure basic necessities ○ Measure: market basket measure (MBM) Relative poverty: defines poverty relative to median or mean household incomes ○ Measure: low income cut-off (LICO) Different poverty definitions lead to different poverty measures and thus different poverty statistics Research Surveys and a Lesson in Interpreting Poll Results Data generation methods: ○ A poll is a quantitative survey designed to measure respondents’ views on a particular topic or set of topics ○ Closed-ended questionnaires are used to capture respondents’ answers to a set of questions with set answer options ○ Open-ended questionnaires, are used to capture respondents’ answers to each question without having to select a predetermined response from a list (response cannot be yes or no) Questionnaires are administered to a sample, selected from a larger population Variables and Correlations Variable: a concept with measurable traits or characteristics that can vary or change from one person, group, culture, or time to another Sociologists commonly refer to two different types of variables: ○ Independent variable: has an effect on another variable (the cause) ○ Dependent variable: is affected by the independent variable (the effect) Correlation exists when two variables are associated more frequently than could be expected by chance ○ This relationship can take on two forms: Direct (or positive) correlation occurs when the independent and the dependent variables increase or decrease together Inverse (or negative) correlation occurs when the two variables change in opposing directions Correlation is NOT causation Correlation: describes the relationship between two variables Causation: the linking of effects to cause Spurious reasoning: occurs when someone sees correlation and falsely assumes causation - Spurious variable: a third outside factor that influences both correlating variables Joel Best - States that we should viewed statistics critically, we must recognized that statistics is flawed to some extent; and these flaws can have grave consequences - When examining a statistic we must ask ourselves a number of questions such as: - What might be the sources for this number? - Who produced the number, and what interests might they have? - What are the different ways key terms might have been defined, and which definitions have been chosen? Ethics and Research Research ethics entails demonstrating respect for the research subjects (i.e. their privacy, their understanding of what the research will require of them, and their capacity to choose to be researched or not) Inform consent is given when participants indicate their understanding and acceptance of the reasearch conditions Chapter 3: Culture Culture is a system of behaviours, beliefs, knowledges, practices, values, concrete materials including buildings, tools, and sacred items. (how people see life and how they live it) A.L. Kroeber: says culture is superorganic (meaning that culture exists above any human organic individual, culture outlives individuals) Cultures are dynamic and change over time ○ Culture and its elements are contested: there is little agreement as to who and what belongs to a culture, even by those who belong to a cultural group ○ One of the points of contestation is authenticity or what is particular to a culture Types of cultures can be distinguished along two central oppositions ○ Dominant culture vs. subculture and counterculture ○ High culture vs. popular and mass culture Dominant Culture vs. Subculture and Counterculture Dominant culture: the culture that, through its political and economic power, is able to impose its values, language, and ways of behaving and interpreting behaviour on a given society ○ Dominants refers to people who are closely linked with the cultural mainstream ○ Canada’s dominants are white, English-speaking, heterosexual, male university graduates of European background between the ages of 30 and 55, in good health, who owns homes in middle-class neighbourhoods of cities in Ontario or Quebec Minority cultures are those that fall outside the cultural mainstream ○ There are two subcategories that falls under minority cultures: countercultures and subcultures Countercultures are minority cultures that feel the power of the dominant culture and exist in opposition to it. (e.g., clothing styles or sexual norms) ○ E.g. hippies, biker gangs, and alternative (music and fashion) Subcultures are minority cultures that differ in some way from the dominant culture but don’t directly oppose it. ○ E.g. groups organized around occupations or hobbies High Culture vs. Popular Culture High culture: the culture of the elite, a distinct minority. It is associated with the arts (e.g. theatre, opera, ballet, and classical music)  ○ High culture requires what Pierre Bourdieu called cultural capital: a set of skills and knowledge needed to acquire the sophisticated tastes that mark someone as a person of high culture Popular culture: the culture of the majority, especially those who do not have power (E.g. the working class, the less educated, women, and racialized minorities) ○ Cultural studies cast light on the significance of, and meanings expressed in, popular culture Mass culture: refers to people who have little to no agency in the culture they consume (e.g. big companies dictate what people watch, buy, value or believe) ○ Created by those in power for the masses A crucial distinction exists between popular culture and mass culture. The two differ in terms of agency, the ability of “the people” to be creative or productive with materials given to them by a dominant culture. Simulacra is a feature of Mass Culture ○ Simulacra are stereotypical cultural images produced and reproduced by material goods or commodities by the media and sometimes scholars (Jean Baudrillard, 1929-2007) E.g. Inuit represented through igloos, kayaks, etc. ○ Simulcra are “hyperreal”, thus likely to be considered more real than what actually exists Important distinction between the two positions involves decipherment and reading: ○ Decipherment involves looking in a text for the definitive interpretation, for the purpose (conscious or unconscious) the culture industry had in mind in creating the text ○ Reading is the process in which people treat was is provided by the culture industry as a resource, a text to be interpreted as they see fit. In ways not necessarily intended by creators of the text Cultural Norms Norms are the rules or standards of behaviour that are expected of a group, society, or culture ○ Norms may be contested along the lines of ethnicity, race, gender, and age ○ Norms are expressed in a culture through various means, from ceremonies that reflect cultural customs (a wedding, for example) to symbolic articles of dress (the white dress worn by the bride)  ○ Norms changes over time and differs from culture to culture Sanctions Sanctions are rewards and punishments in response to a particular behaviour ○ Positive sanctions are rewards for “doing the right thing” (e.g. smiles, high five or bonus) ○ Negative sanctions are reactions designed to tell offenders they have violated a norm (e.g. a glare, eye roll, parking ticket, library fine) Folkways, Mores, and Taboos William Graham Sumner (1840-1910) distinguished three kinds of norms: 1. Folkways, or etiquette, are norms that govern day-to-day matters. Those are norms we should not violate and they are weakly sanctioned (e.g. double-dipping chips) 2. Mores are more serious than folkways. These often formalized norms we must not violate and violations are met with serious sanctions (e.g. stealing, rape). Mores are complicated and may be contested 3. Taboos are norms that are so deeply ingrained in our social consciousness that the mere though of mention of it is enough to arouse disgust or revulsion (e.g. incest, child pornography) Culture Symbols Symbols are cultural items that hold significance for a culture or subculture ○ Symbols can be tangible (material objects), such as the maple leaf, niqab ○ Symbols can also be intangible (non-material objects) such as songs or events (e.g. seal hunt, Canadian Anthem) ○ Cultural symbols changes over time Values Values are the standards used by a culture to describe abstract qualities such as goodness, beauty, and justice and to assess the behaviour of others Values and behaviour are not always congruent ○ Ideal culture: what people believe in (e.g. environmentalism) ○ Actual culture: what really exists (e.g. driving large SUVs) Ethnocentrism  Ethnocentrism occurs when someone holds up one culture–usually their own–as being the standard by which all cultures are to be judged ○ often the product of a lack of knowledge or ignorance ○ Played a role in the colonizing efforts of powerful nations imposing their political, economic, and religious beliefs on the Indigenous populations of lands they “discovered.” (e.g. the 1884 Potlatch Act) Eurocentrism Eurocentrism involves addressing others from a broadly defined European position to address others and assuming the audience is or would like to be part of that position ○ E.g. Eurocentric perspectives of many textbooks used in the West tends to champion advanced made by people of European stock while downplaying or altogether ignoring important non-European developments (e.g. the standard numbering system is the Hindu-Arabic system) Cultural Globalization Cultural globalization is the intensification and expansion of cultural flows across the globe (Steger, 2003, p. 69) ○ The “Americanization” of the world or the danger of a one-directional flow of culture could be problematic Cultural Relativism An approach to studying and understanding an aspect of another culture within its proper social, historical, and environmental context ○ We cannot use our own cultural standard to assess and judge the cultural practices of others Cultural relativism becomes problematic when studying historical practices and views that were once widespread but are now considered abhorrent and offensive such as acts of genocide against Indigenous Peoples (e.g. Mi’Kmaq population) Sociolinguistics The study of language as part of culture ○ Language is key to the communication and transmission of culture ○ Sociolinguistics looks at language in relation to such sociological factors as “race”, ethnicity, age, gender, and region Dialect as a Sociological Term Dialect: a variety of a language that differs from other in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar ○ Dialects are often evaluated according to whether they represent proper or improper, casual or formal, even funny or serious versions of a language ○ The distinctions are a product of linguistic and social factors An example of a dialect difference can be seen in the SUV commercial that featured a voiceover in a Newfoundland accent. However you may not hear that same accent extolling the marketable features of a Lexus. Linguistic Determinism and Relativity Sapir-Whorf hypothesis describes the relationship between language and culture Language, words, and the meanings they generate are culture-specific, therefore language outside of its cultural context does not make sense Linguistic determinism suggests that the way we view and understand the world is shaped by the language we speak ○ E.g. gendered pronouns reflect and shape how we think about gender Chapter 4: Socialization Socialization A lifelong learning process that involves figuring out or being taught how to be a social person in a given society. It brings changes in an individual’s sense of self Types of Socialization: ○ Primary socialization is the socialization that occurs during childhood ○ Secondary socialization is the socialization that occurs later in life Determinism: Nature versus Nurture Central to any discussion of socialization are two contentious topics:  ○ Determinism versus free will ○ Biological determinsim versus social determinism Determinism refers to the degree to which an individual’s behaviour, attitudes, and other personal characteristics are determined or caused by something specific (e.g. genetic makeup) ○ Biological determinism (nature) versus Social or cultural determinism (nurture) Biological Determinism “Nature” in the old “nature vs. nurture” debate States that the greater part of who we are is determined by our roughly 26,000 genes ○ E.g. if we are good at sports, music or art it is because we are somehow genetically predisposed to be so Sigmund Freud: Balancing the Biological and the Socio-Cultural Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) argued that both biological and social factors shape human personality The human mind has three parts: the id, the superego, and the ego: 1. Id represents our unconscious instinctive drives Eros (life drive dedicated to pleasure seeking) and Thanatos (death wish the instinct for aggression and violence) 2. Superego is the part of the mind that polices the id (your conscience) Internalized moral messages provided by socializing agents 3. Ego is the main agent of the personality, driven by the id and its demands but restrained by the superego Erik Erikson (1902-1994), recognized the influence that society has on ego development well into old age ○ He believed each stage of life, from infancy to maturity, is defined by a central crisis (trust versus mistrust, intimacy versus isolation, etc.) that significantly impact individual development. Behaviourism A school of thought in psychology that takes a strong cultural-determinist position) ○ (“nurture” in the “nature vs. nurture” debate) ○ Behaviourists emphasizes the power of learning in the development of behaviour ○ Much of who we are and what we do is a consequence of how previous behaviour was responded to  Shaping someone’s behaviours through rewards and punishments is called behaviour modification Edward Throndike calls this the law of effect ○ Desired behaviours are rewarded and thus reinforced ○ Undesired behaviours are ignored or punished and thus likely abandoned The Oversocialized View of Human Behaviour Canadian sociologist Dennis H. Wrong (1961) argued the behaviourists work with an oversocialized representation of human beings Individuals are not passive recipients of the messages that our socializing agents give us, but have the agency to resist Agents of Socialization Groups that have a significant impact one’s socialization ○ E.g. family, peers, neighbourhood/community, school, mass media, the legal system, one’s culture The impact of different socializing agents is contested Significant Other, Generalized Other, and Sense of Self George Herbert Mead, a symbolic interactionist, argued children are socialized by others and internalize norms and values Mead distinguished between two categories of agents of socialization 1. Significant others: key individuals, primarily parents, siblings and friends, whom young children imitate and model themselves after 2. Generalized others: the attitudes, viewpoints, and general expectations of the society into which the child is socialized Freud would call that the superego’s internalization of societal norms Mead argued that the socialization of a child unfolds as a developmental sequence in three stages: 1. Preparatory stage: involves the imitation on the part of the child 2. Play stage: the child engages in role-taking and assumes the perspective of significant others (e.g. parents, grandparents, siblings) 3. Game stage: the child is able to consider several roles and viewpoints simultaneously Significant and generalized others continue to evert influence on an individual later in life  Charles Cooley (1864-1929), also a symbolic interactionist, introduced the idea of the looking-glass self as an explanation of how the self develops ○ The individuals self image is based on how a person thinks they are viewed by others There are three components to the looking-glass self: 1. How you imagine you appear to others 2. How you imagine those others judge your appearance 3. How you feel as a result (proud, self-confident, etc.) Family The first and often most powerful agent of socialization ○ Socialization of the child is consistently seen as a key function of the family ○ However, the approach to socialization varies from family to family and culture to culture ○ Some researchers have questioned the role of family socialization and instead have linked personalities to national character Peer Group A social group sharing key characteristics such as age, social position, and interests ○ Peer pressure refers to the social force exerted on individuals by their peers to conform in behaviour, appearance, or externally demonstrated values ○ Peer pressure is socialization in action Community and Neighborhood Important agents in child and adolescent socialization How do the following issues affect a child? ○ City vs. small town vs. suburb ○ Rich vs. poor. vs. mixed neighbourhoods Depending on where they live, children are more or less likely to engage in risk behaviours, that is lifestyle activities that place a person at increased probability of suffering negative consequences (e.g. dangerous speeds, drinking to excess) Mass Media There has been much debate as to whether mass media has an effect on our behaviour ○ Much has been debated regarding the violence children see on television, in movies, and through the use of video games  Some studies suggest the exposure to violence desentizies, especially young men Others claim that violence in media provides a safe outlet for pent up hostile emotions Rowell Huesmann’s longitudinal studies on the relationship between violent TV watching and violent behaviour concludes that there is a connection Huesmann proposed two theories to explain this increase in violent behaviour: 1. Observational learning theory: children acquire aggressive scripts for solving social problems by watching violence on television 2. Desentization theory: increased exposure to television violence desentizes or numbs natural negative reaction to violence Jib Fowles argues that discussions about television violence are really about cultural conflict ○ Fowles draws on the work of Pierre Bourdieu, especially his concepts of habitus and reproduction ○ Habitus is a wide-ranging set of socially acquired characteristics (e.g. manners, good taste) ○ Reproduction is the means by which classes (i.e. the upper or dominant class) preserve status differences among classes ○ He argues that condemnation of television violence is aim at reproducing the habitus of the dominant class by condemning the habitus of the dominated class Education Another powerful socializing agent ○ Schools are often the first source of information that children receive about a social group other than their own Students are socialized through teachers, curriculums, textbooks, and the social environment of the classroom Teachers play a critical role ○ A teacher’s social location–their gender, age, ethnicity, and so on–can have a powerful effect on the educational socialization of the student There are observable gender differences in educational performance that are the result of differential socialization It is a common belief that boys have a greater aptitude for the so-called STEM subjects–science, technology, engineering, and math–while girls have a higher ability in language and literature.  Both tend to discourage to take on subject matters assigned to the opposite sex Much has been done to increase girls’ representation and performance in male-dominated disciplines, but boys are still not encouraged to enter female dominated fields Issues of Socialization David Elkind (2003) studied how culture contributes to the hurried child syndrome He argues that today’s children have lost free play and instead have a rigid program of scheduled activities Due to over-programming many children now feel adult-like stress levels and guilt Digital communication also created a generation gap ○ Children and their parents use different technology ○ Technology makes adult content available to children and thus affects childhood socialization Secondary Socialization and Resocialization Secondary socialization usually occurs during adolescence and early adulthood and takes place outside the family and involve a group smaller than society (e.g. new school or neighbourhood) Resocialization is the process of unlearning old behaviours, attitudes and values and learning new ones upon moving into a significantly different social environment ○ Reosocialization can be either voluntary or involuntary ○ Both types of resocialization can occur together Voluntary resocialization occurs when someone starts school, changes school, starts a new job, retires, undergoes a religious conversion, etc. ○ This type of resocialization is often marked by a rite of passage, a ritual or ceremony signalling a change of status E.g. confirmation, bar mitzvah, bat mitzvah Involuntary resocialization occurs when someone is forced to change ○ Total institutions resocialize by regulating all aspects of an individual’s life (e.g. residential schools, prisons, military) Part of the unlearning process in total institutions is the degradation ceremony: a rite of passage that strips a person of their individuality (e.g. hazing) Hazing as Resocialization  Hazing entails resocializing new members of a group or organization such as a university fraternity or sports team Often entails enduring demeaning or uncomfortable experiences Typically involves ritual humiliation of rookie members by veterans At times can cross over into abuse Traditionally, hazing has been more of a male than female activity