SDP Report Template March 2023 PDF

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ENVIROMENTAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT ENV 512 Senior Design Project I Final Report Design of Closed-Loop Dust Mitigation in Aggregate Mining: Enhancing Air Quality and Sustainability at the Second Stage Crusher Name: Noor Wajdy Alzayer ID# 2210001321 Name: Arkan Abdulmajeed Almushakies ID# 2210001228 Name: Fatmah Meshal Al bibi y ID# 2210001190 Name: Zainab Hussain Alawami ID# 2210001873 Name: Aryaf Albogami ID#2210001651 Advisor: Dr. Ismail Anil Co – Advisor: Prof. Omer Aga A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Environmental Engineering Jumada 1446 (Dec 2024) FORM C-3 PROJECT REPORT EVALUATION SHEET Name of Supervisor/Jury Member: Signature: Date: Department c Biomedical c Civil & Construction c Environmental c Mechanical & Energy c Traffic & Transportation Project Code: Report Assessment Rubric and Score Key Indicators & ABET Student Outcomes (SO) Marginal Developing Satisfactory Proficient Chapters Score (2) (3) (4) (5) ABET SO 1 – Ability to identify, formulate and solve complex engineering problems: Problem 1, 2, and 3, formulation and solution methodology is clearly defined, a systematic approach to problem solution design flow is used, solution techniques are appropriate, the results are valid. chart ABET SO 2 – Ability to apply engineering design to produce solutions that meet desired needs: 1, 2, 3, and Design uses engineering knowledge, techniques & tools, explores alternatives under prescribed others if constraints and engineering standards, satisfies requirements, & considers impact* of solution on applicable public health, safety, and welfare, global, cultural, social, environmental, and economic factors. ABET SO 3 – Ability to communicate effectively with a range of audiences: Overall written Complete English quality and evidence of written communication with possible audiences: faculty, students, report the public sector, local & international vendors & manufacturers, and others non-technical, etc. ABET SO 4 – Demonstrate understanding of professional and ethical responsibility: Evidence 1 and 3 SO4 Ave shows that decisions/judgements were based on consideration of the impact of engineering solutions in global, economic, environmental, and societal contexts. ABET SO 4 – Plagiarism detection using IThenticate® – Appendix E of report must include a Appendix > 40% 30-40% 20-30% < 20% snapshot of the similarity percentage page. E ABET SO 5 – Ability to function effectively on collaborative and inclusive teams: Gantt chart, 1, and project management tasks and team meeting log sheets show evidence that decision making was Appendices performed in a collaborative and all-inclusive setting, project responsibilities were equally shared, A&F team members were cooperative and fulfilled their roles. ABET SO 7 – Ability to acquire and apply new knowledge as needed, using appropriate learning 1, 2 and 3 strategies: Evidence of activities such as identifying needed information for a project, examining sources for the information, determining an appropriate source and applying the information. * Identifies whether an impact is major or minor along with a statement justifying the impact. Total score out of 30 ii Abstract This project addresses a real-life problem faced by ESNAD Mining Company at their Summan site in the Eastern Province, focusing on strategies and design for dust mitigation of secondary crusher in mining operations. The substantial dust emissions generated by secondary crushing cause significant environmental and health challenges. By implementing effective dust control measures, the project aims to enhance air quality, promote worker safety, and ensure compliance with local and global regulations. Collaboration with ESNAD will enable practical applications of advanced dust suppression technologies. The expected outcomes include reduced dust emissions, improved operational efficiency, and a commitment to sustainable mining practices, benefiting workers and surrounding communities. iii Acknowledgements Above all, we are deeply thankful to Allah for His guidance, blessings, and protection throughout our lives, including the years of this study. We are honored to dedicate this small accomplishment to glorifying His name in the sincerest way. May peace and blessings be upon our Prophet Mohammed. We extend our heartfelt gratitude to our advisor, Dr. Ismail Anil, for his invaluable support and guidance throughout the project. His insights and encouragement have been instrumental in helping us achieve the objectives of this project. Similarly, we would like to thank our co-advisor, Prof. Omer Aga, for his expertise and constructive feedback, which greatly enriched our work. We are sincerely grateful to ESNAD Mining Company, our sponsor, for their generous support and collaboration. Special thanks go to Mr. Hakem Al Rowaily and Eng. Mohamed Tambal for their guidance and for facilitating seamless communication throughout this project. We also wish to acknowledge the contributions of our university faculty, department staff, and workshop teams, whose advice and resources were critical to the project’s success. Additionally, we express our appreciation to any individuals and organizations who provided financial or material support, ensuring the smooth progress of our work. Lastly, we owe a debt of gratitude to our families for their patience, encouragement, and unwavering support throughout the years of our study and, especially, during the demanding period of this Senior Design Project. iv Table of Contents FORM C-3 PROJECT REPORT EVALUATION SHEET................................................................... ii Abstract................................................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents................................................................................................................................... v List of Figures..................................................................................................................................... viii List of Tables......................................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 10 1.1 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 10 1.2 Problem Statement..................................................................................................................... 10 1.3 Problem Objectives.................................................................................................................... 11 1.4 Requirements for Objectives Fulfillment................................................................................... 11 1.5 Expected Outcomes.................................................................................................................... 11 1.6 Considerations of Factors and the Impact on Design................................................................. 11 1.7 Considerations of Ethical and Professional Responsibilities..................................................... 13 1.8 SWOT Analysis.......................................................................................................................... 13 1.9 Design Criteria, Standards and Codes........................................................................................ 14 1.10 Design Constraints................................................................................................................... 15 1.11 Project Management................................................................................................................. 16 Chapter 2 Background.......................................................................................................................... 20 2.1 Existing Product or Idea (Patent)/Market Research................................................................... 20 2.1.1 Spray Device of Mines, Patent No.CN1161917063B........................................................ 20 2.1.2 Aqueous Solution of Organic Ammonium Carboxylate, Patent No. US11685850B2....... 20 2.1.3 Dust Control Method, Patent No. ES2952034T3............................................................... 21 2.2 Literature Review....................................................................................................................... 22 2.2.1 Overview of Mining Industry Activities and their role in society...................................... 22 2.2.2 Operational Steps in the Crushing Process......................................................................... 23 2.2.3 Challenges in crushing process and dust problem.............................................................. 28 2.2.5 Air Pollution from aggregate Industries............................................................................. 33 2.2.6 Recent Technologies for Dust Control............................................................................... 39 v 2.2.7 Health and Environmental Assessment in Aggregate Industries....................................... 45 2.3 Design Novelty.......................................................................................................................... 47 2.3.1 Custom Nozzle Design....................................................................................................... 47 2.3.2 Optimizing Process with AI – Based Models.................................................................... 47 2.3.3 Flexible Design.................................................................................................................. 47 Chapter 3 Design and Methodology.................................................................................................... 49 3.1 Concept Design.......................................................................................................................... 49 3.2 Design Flowchart....................................................................................................................... 51 3.3 Detailed Description of the Design............................................................................................ 52 3.4 Material Selection...................................................................................................................... 63 3.4.1 Mixture selection.................................................................................................................... 63 3.4.2 Nozzle type............................................................................................................................. 63 3.4.3 Spry Drone.............................................................................................................................. 63 3.5 Numerical Modeling.................................................................................................................. 64 3.5.1 Software Descriptions........................................................................................................ 66 3.5.2.1 AutoCAD......................................................................................................................... 66 3.5.2.2 Microsoft Excel................................................................................................................ 66 3.5.2.3 Flochart metho. drawio:............................................................................................... 66 3.5.2.4 Ansys............................................................................................................................ 66 3.6 Design Methodology.................................................................................................................. 67 3.6.1 Dust Suppressant (PVA-XG-PAA/SDBS) preparation...................................................... 67 3.6.2 Converging Nozzle Design Parameters................................................................................ 5 3.6.3 Nozzle Integration with the Drone....................................................................................... 6 3.7 Engineering Drawing................................................................................................................... 1 Appendix A Gantt Chart........................................................................................................................ 2 Appendix B Final Drawing.................................................................................................................... 4............................................................................................................................................................... 5 Appendix C List of Vendors.................................................................................................................. 6 Appendix D Specification for Supplied Materials................................................................................. 7 Appendix E Computer Program Listing................................................................................................ 8 Appendix F IThenticate® Similarity Page............................................................................................. 9 Appendix G Team Meeting Log Sheets............................................................................................... 10 vi References............................................................................................................................................ 11 vii List of Figures Figure 1: Rock blasting processess (Adeyi, Mbagwu and Okeke, 2019)............................................ 24 Figure 2: Flow chart of the crushing processes.................................................................................... 27 Figure 3: Different mechanisms of aggregate comminution (Sairanen & Rinne, 2019a).................... 28 Figure 4: Particle size distribution curves of aggregates from concrete removed from buildings using impact and jaw crushers (Ulsen et al., 2019)....................................................................................... 29 Figure 5: Particle size distribution of 40 crusher samples of quarry dust (Prakash and Hanumantha Rao, 2017)............................................................................................................................................ 32 Figure 6: Topographical conditions and location of the sampling sites in Zhengzhou (ZZ) and Xinxiang (XX). The round icons represent surrounding main cities. AY, Anyang; HB, Hebi; JC (Liu et al., 2019).......................................................................................................................................... 34 Figure 7: Deposition profiles particles of particles sized between 0.1 and 100 μm under conditions of normal nasal breathing and oral breathing after light exercise (Kamanzi et al., 2023)........................ 38 Figure 8: Dry fog application for dust control (Garcia-Granda et al., 2024)Figure 2: Deposition profiles particles of particles sized between 0.1 and 100 μm under conditions of normal nasal breathing and oral breathing after light exercise (Kamanzi et al., 2023)............................................. 38 Figure 9: Process of dust contact with droplets (Han et al., 2023)...................................................... 41 Figure 10: Types of Chemical Stabilizers for dust control (Garcia-Granda et al., 2024).................... 42 Figure : Comparison of the efficiency of water spraying and foam for dust control (Ji et al., 2022).. 43 Figure : Preparation Workflow............................................................. 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Figure : isometric view represents the nozzle....................................................................................... 4 Figure : isometric view represents the nozzle....................................................................................... 4 Figure 16: side view.Figure 17: side view............................................................................................. 4 Figure 18: side view.Figure 19: side view............................................................................................. 4 Figure : side view with dimensions....................................................................................................... 5 Figure : side view with dimensions....................................................................................................... 5 Figure : top view.................................................................................................................................... 5 Figure : top view.................................................................................................................................... 5 viii List of Tables Table 1-1: Consideration of Factors in Design and Impact Assessment.............................................. 11 Table 1-2: Consideration of Ethical and Professional Responsibilities................................................ 13 Table 1-3: SWOT Analysis.................................................................................................................. 13 Table 1-4: Team management.............................................................................................................. 16 Table 2-5: Different foam generation devices for dust reduction (Ji et al., 2022)................................ 43 Table 2-6: Different types of dry dust collectors (Huang et al., 2024)................................................. 44 Table 3-1: Evaluates the effectiveness of various materials in suppressing dust emissions, considering their environmental and operational considerations, advantages, and disadvantages.......................... 53 Table 3-2: Description of dust suppression technologies, including Fog Cannons, Dust Suppression Sprayers, Shower Systems, and AI-Driven Drones, along with their evaluations and scores.............. 58 Table 3-3: Overview of Components Table 3-3 : Overview of Components...................................... 68 Table 3-5: Summary of Preparation Conditions................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. Table 3-6: Final Mixture Properties..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. ix Chapter 1 Introduction In this introductory chapter, it serves as foundational concepts that reinforce the project. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the problem, objectives, and significance of the study, setting the stage for the detailed analysis to follow. Furthermore, it articulates an assessment of the impact of design and identifies the key factors, including relevant standards and challenges that prompted the design. Utilizing a SWOT analysis, we explore the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats associated with the project. Ending by design constraints and the project management. 1.1 Overview Dust emissions from aggregate mining operations present significant environmental and health challenges, particularly at the Summan site operated by ESNAD Mining Company. The secondary stage of crushing generates a large amount of particulate matter, reducing air quality and exposing workers and nearby communities to health risks. Current approaches to dust management at this facility face limitations, highlighting the need for more effective solutions to enhance compliance with environmental standards and protect public health. To address these issues, the project aims to develop an innovative and cost-effective dust mitigation strategy designed specifically for the Summan site. By implementing advanced dust control technologies and best practices, the project seeks to minimize airborne pollutants while improving operational efficiency. This design effort will not only enhance air quality but also promote worker safety and compliance with local and international environmental standards. The project seeks to set a benchmark for sustainable mining practices, benefiting both the environment and the health of surrounding communities. 1.2 Problem Statement ESNAD Mining Company, located at the Al Summan crusher complex along the Riyadh-Al Dammam highway, forty km away from Al Daho city, is experiencing significant dust emissions from the second stage crusher in its processing plant. The current system struggles to effectively manage particulate matter, leading to non-compliance with environmental regulations and posing 10 health risks to workers and surrounding communities. The challenge is to design an innovative and cost-effective solution that mitigates dust pollutants while ensuring operational efficiency. 1.3 Problem Objectives Developing an effective dust control design in aggregate mining operations is the primary goal of this project, with objectives stated below: 1. To design an effective dust control solution in aggregate mining operations to minimize the environmental impacts. 2. Enhance workers’ health and safety and ensure compliance with regulatory requirements. 3. Develop a sustainable closed-loop system tailored to the second-stage crusher 1.4 Requirements for Objectives Fulfillment 1. Equipment for monitoring air quality including sensors that continuously track the dust emissions levels in different locations at the site. 2. Software like QGIS, Google Earth and Expert Design should be in use to map the site and model the dust dispersion. 3. Conducting pilot test is required before the real implementation of the design. 4. Collaboration with ESNAD by using their site resources and mining facilities. 5. Access to IAU laboratory such as air pollution, PC and chemistry lab to practice modeling, simulation, and data analysis. 1.5 Expected Outcomes 1. Implement a dust control system that significantly reduces environmental impacts, achieving a measurable decrease in dust levels during secondary crushing process of mining operations. 2. Establish comprehensive safety and health measures that ensure worker protection from dust exposure, while achieving full compliance with all relevant regulatory requirements. 3. Promote Sustainable Mining Practices: Develop a dust mitigation approach that integrates environmentally sustainable practices, setting a benchmark for similar operations in the mining industry. 1.6 Considerations of Factors and the Impact on Design Table 1-1: Consideration of Factors in Design and Impact Assessment For major impact (only), briefly state Justification of Impact Factors steps taken for consideration of factor (Suggested rationale) in design Public Health. It reduces air pollution and noise, which 1. Measure current dust emissions and will improve the public health of workers identify pollution sources to inform Impact: and protect surrounding areas. design choices. Major 2. Design systems to limit noise and dust generation during operations, 11 protecting workers' health and comfort. 3. Assess potential adverse effects on workers and local communities to ensure the design promotes general well-being. Safety Structurally safe to use and maintenance 1. Design dust control systems with for operators. Made from non–hazardous robust materials and engineering Impact: and non–toxic materials. practices to prevent structural failures Major during operation. 2. Perform thorough assessments to confirm that all components are safe to use and handle, minimizing risks to workers. 3. Choose non-toxic and non-explosive materials for dust suppression solutions to protect worker health and safety. 4. Provide training for employees on efficient use and maintenance of the new systems to reduce the possibility of accidents. Global, Dealing with real challenge that is gained Cultural and from communication with different Societal companies. Design is based on local climate and societal needs. Impact: Minor Economic The new product will create financial 1. Evaluate the financial implications of Welfare sustainability and balance the investment implementing new dust control in new dust control technologies with technologies. Impact: low operational and maintenance costs. 2. Design dust control solutions that Major enhance productivity while minimizing operational disruptions, leading to lower overall costs. Environmental it reduces dust emissions that will 1. Evaluate potential dust emissions and preserve the ecosystem and be safe to their effects on local ecosystems to Impact: use. identify critical areas for mitigation. Major 2. Design dust control systems that consider the surrounding environment, ensuring that operations do not impact workers. 3. Use non-toxic and sustainable 12 materials in the design to promote environmental safety. 1.7 Considerations of Ethical and Professional Responsibilities. Table 1-2: Consideration of Ethical and Professional Responsibilities Contexts Statement Justifying Considerations in Design Global While the design can contribute to better environmental practices, its immediate global influence is limited, focusing primarily on local and regional impacts. Impact: Minor Economic The design can lead to significant economic benefits by reducing operational costs, preventing fines from regulatory violations, and improving overall Impact: efficiency. Major Environmental The primary focus of the project is to reduce harmful dust emissions, directly improving environmental conditions in the surrounding area and aligning with Impact: sustainable practices. Major Societal The project plays a crucial role in safeguarding public health and worker safety by mitigating dust, which directly impacts the quality of life and community Impact: health. Major 1.8 SWOT Analysis Table 1-3: SWOT Analysis Strength Weaknesses Full funding from the sponsor to Lack of available data for previous Internal cover the financial costs. technologies. Experience in using environment Time constraints. laboratory equipment and Learning curve for new software instrumentation. tools. Knowledge of environmental 13 engineering design. Several Advisors. Teamwork. Opportunities Threats The design addresses a global Relying on many instructions and problem with local interest. regulations from different External Several potential future funding establishments and organizations. opportunities. Materials availability and Align with the National Center for restrictions. Environmental Compliance. Gaining experience by dealing with new types of materials. 1.9 Design Criteria, Standards and Codes a. NCEC Code and Standr No. (m/165), dated 19/11/1441 Hijr, Executive Regulations - for Air Quality The Air Quality Executive Regulations issued by the Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia provide comprehensive regulation of air pollution. Clearly define air quality and emissions standards, and specify the roles and responsibilities of government entities, industries, and the public in managing air quality. The regulations address key pollutants, including particulate matter and nitrogen oxides, and specify mechanisms for monitoring and enforcing compliance and penalties for non- compliance. b. CITC Technical Specification for Drones (RI115) The CITC (Communications and Information Technology Commission) Technical Specification for Drones (RI115) outlines the requirements and standards for the design, operation, and safety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in Saudi Arabia. The purpose of this standard is to encourage the safe and effective use of drones in a variety of sectors, such as agriculture, logistics, surveillance. c. ISO 18497: Guidelines for the design and testing of agricultural drones. Guidelines for the design, testing, and evaluation of unmanned aerial vehicles specifically for agricultural applications. The standards aim to ensure that agricultural drones are safe, 14 efficient, and reliable for a variety of agricultural tasks, including crop monitoring, spraying and data collection. d. ISO 5167-3: Nozzles and venturi nozzles. The standard applies to subsonic, single-phase flow. It includes three standard tips for refusing to give guidelines for their use, including reliable calibers and predetermined values. e. ISO 5167-3: Nozzles and venturi nozzles. The standard applies to subsonic, single-phase flow. It includes three standard tips for refusing to give guidelines for their use, including reliable calibers and predetermined values. 1.10 Design Constraints 1. Economic/financial The project must be cost-effective, focusing on reducing operational costs such as maintenance and avoiding fines due to non-compliance with environmental regulations. The design must balance initial investment costs with long-term savings, ensuring financial sustainability. It should also minimize downtime, increasing overall productivity and economic viability for mining operations. 2. Health, Safety and Environmental A key design constraint is to prioritize the health and safety of workers by reducing exposure to hazardous dust particles. The project must comply with safety standards to protect both employees and the surrounding community. Additionally, the design aims to reduce environmental impacts, ensuring that dust mitigation efforts meet environmental regulations, contributing to better air quality and ecosystem protection. 3. Manufacturability The system should be designed with manufacturability in mind, ensuring that the materials and components used are readily available and can be assembled with ease. The design must consider the availability of resources and the complexity of the manufacturing process to avoid excessive costs or delays in production. It should be practical for large-scale implementation in mining operations. 15 4. Ethical The project must adhere to ethical standards by ensuring that all intellectual property is respected, and the design process follows industry codes of conduct. This includes transparency in materials sourcing, fairness in labor practices, and ensuring the system does not harm the environment or communities. It must also ensure compliance with legal and professional guidelines to maintain integrity in engineering practices. 5. Social/Cultural The design must be sensitive to the social and cultural contexts of the communities affected by the mining operations. By reducing dust, the system promotes a healthier living environment for nearby residents, respecting the cultural importance of the land and contributing to the community’s well-being. The project must also foster positive relations with the public by showing a commitment to reducing the environmental footprint of mining activities. 1.11 Project Management Appendix A: Gantt chart Table 1-4: Team management. No. Student Name Student ID Main Tasks Leadership Period 1. Noor Alzayer 2210001321 -Communicate 04/09/2024- with ESNAD 31/10/2024 about the sponsorship opportunity. -Schedule meetings with Shibh AlJazeera company. -Prepare Q&A files to full-fill technical gaps. 16 2. Arkan AlMushaikhs 2210001228 - Prepare the 31/10/2024- topics included in 12/12/2024 the literature review part of the SDP Report - Write site visit report - Prepare response questions from ESNAD report - Recording meetings findings - Distributed the work on the group member 3. Zainab Al Awami 2210001873 -Review article 19/01/2025- about the general 28/02/2025 topic and summarize it -Proposal writing -Prepared a list of question to the site visit -Prepare a Risk Assessment for the site visit - Prepare introduction of SDP report - In chapter one write: section 1.4 17 part of 1.7 - In chapter two write: 2.2.2 Operational Steps in the Crushing Process 2.2.7 Health and Environmental Assessment in Aggregate Industries -In chapter three write: 3.4 Material Selection, 3.5.2 Software description and 3.3 Detailed Description of the Design 4. Aryaf Al Bogami 2210001651 - Prepare 28/02/2025 – questions for the 13/04/2025 site visit. -Divide Section and sub-section for the literature review. -Write section 2.6 in literature review. 18 5. Fatima Al Bibi Y 2210001190 - Prepare a list of 13/04/2025 – detailed questions 22/05/2025 that will be asked on Shibh Al Jazira Company (sponsor ). - prepare the list of standers and codes - prepare 2 D process of the site process. 19 Chapter 2 Background This chapter reviews existing dust control technologies, patents, and literature relevant to mining operations. It highlights methods like aqueous organic solutions and biological suppressants, explores challenges in dust generation during crushing processes, and evaluates recent technologies such as fog-based systems and foam suppression. The chapter also assesses the environmental and health impacts of aggregate industries and introduces the innovative aspects of the proposed design to address current gaps effectively. 2.1 Existing Product or Idea (Patent)/Market Research 2.1.1 Spray Device of Mines, Patent No.CN1161917063B The "Spray Device for Mines" introduces an innovative solution for dust suppression in mining operations. It features a water tank equipped with multiple rollers and a telescopic rod that allows the sprayer to elevate and adjust its angle automatically. Utilizing both wind and solar energy, the power assembly drives an intermittent mechanism, enabling the sprayer to adapt to changing wind conditions. This design significantly enhances the coverage area of the water mist, improving the effectiveness of dust control (Tang Xingxing, 2023). While the device addresses key challenges in mining environments where traditional methods often fail due to static positioning, it also has limitations. For instance, its reliance on environmental conditions for energy generation may hinder performance in low-wind or low-sunlight situations. Additionally, the complexity of the moving parts could increase maintenance requirements. Nevertheless, this advancement in dust suppression technology promotes operational efficiency and environmental sustainability by effectively reducing dust-related pollution in mining areas (Tang Xingxing, 2023). 2.1.2 Aqueous Solution of Organic Ammonium Carboxylate, Patent No. US11685850B2 An aqueous solution mainly made up of organic ammonium carboxylates is a useful technique for reducing dust emissions in mining and crushing operations. particularly refers to a technique to prevent fine materials from dusting, such as sand, crushed stone, stone powder, crushed expanding 20 clay, crushed cement, concrete, and different powdered organic and mineral components. By dissolving organic ammonium carboxylates in water, a uniform mixture is created that is simple to apply or spray on surfaces where dust production is expected to occur (Thomas Ahlnäs, 2023). The organic ammonium carboxylate solution's droplets combined with fine materials is a crucial component that efficiently prevent dust particles to become airborne. Furthermore, the formulation is an environmentally beneficial choice because it works especially well for applications that require for biodegradability and low biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Furthermore, it is made to continue working as a dust suppressant and anti-icing agent in cold weather by preventing the solution from becoming solid and maintaining its effectiveness even in freezing temperatures. The strategy has noteworthy benefits, like sustainability in the environment and ease of use (Thomas Ahlnäs, 2023). 2.1.3 Dust Control Method, Patent No. ES2952034T3 A sustainable innovation composition used to control the dust diffusion by using organic waste which can include agricultural byproducts or other biodegradable substances. The innovation mixture consists of specific microbial strains that help in enhancing the dust-binding properties of the organic waste, nitrogen source such as urease and calcium component such as calcium carbonate or calcium chloride. Calcium components help in forming stable aggregates by attracting moisture and binding particles together (Michael, 2023). Organic waste and calcium-containing compounds work to bind dust particles into larger aggregates, making them resistant to dispersion. Some organic materials possess hygroscopic properties, allowing them to absorb moisture. Additionally, the presence of bacteria facilitates organic interactions, further enhancing these processes (Michael, 2023). The innovation offers environmental benefits; it not only controls dust but also contributes to waste management and environmental protection. By using decomposed organic waste, it can enrich the soil with nutrients, promoting plant growth, which helps stabilize the ground and reduce dust. This innovative composition can be applied to various mining operations, providing a sustainable solution by repurposing organic waste as a spray or cover for controlling erosion (Michael, 2023) 21 2.2 Literature Review 2.2.1 Overview of Mining Industry Activities and their role in society The term "mining" describes the process of removing minerals, coal, limestone, and other economically valuable geological materials from the earth. Mining is a major contributor to economic development and progress, encompassing both small- and large-scale operations(Almalki et al., 2019). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has a land area of almost 2 million square kilometers and is abundant in natural resources, which are essential for the growth of industry. The Ministry of Industry and Mineral Resources estimates that the Kingdom's subsurface mineral wealth is worth around USD 1.33 trillion (Hefni et al., 2021). In countries abundant in minerals, the mining industry is frequently regarded as a major contributor to the objectives of sustainable development. In terms of the economy, the sector contributes significantly to exports and production in those nations and is a major source of income for the governments. As a result, nations with abundant natural resources constantly aim to maximize the growth of the mining industry in terms of economic growth. while reducing its harmful effects on the environment. Mineral resource rents have been mobilized by a few industrialized nations, such as Norway and Australia, to promote economic growth and enhance living standards. In certain emerging nations, mining has also been a major driver of growth (Zmami et al., 2021). 2.2.1.1 Role of mining industries on 2030 Saudi vision The Saudi Vision 2030 seeks to make mining a strategic industry that supports job development, economic diversification, and additional value. By 2030, the National Mining Strategy 2030 aims to create 250,000 new employment and enhance the mining industry's Gross domestic product (GDP) contribution from 21 billion USD in 2015 to roughly 70 billion USD (Zmami et al., 2021). Over the next ten years, it is anticipated that exploration and mining activity will increase (Hefni et al., 2021). 2.2.1.2 Economic Contributions to Society The growth of the mining industry appears to be essential for the development of human and public capital since mineral income can be used to pay for investments in physical and human capital. (Turan & Yanıkkaya, 2020). The contribution of minerals and metals, which are driving the manufacturing sector, generating jobs, and adding value along the supply chains of material goods, is essential to achieving several of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for 2030 (Mancini & 22 Sala, 2018). Economic growth can be positively impacted by mineral resources in a variety of ways. First, because they supply essential raw materials, mineral resources are vital to many sectors. Second, the state budget is supported by mining income, which also enables developing nations to create new economic prospects. Third, the mining industry might encourage the growth of other related industries, such as maintenance services, office supplies and equipment, spare parts, and machinery (Zmami et al., 2021). 2.2.1.3 Social Impacts of Mining Operations Social indices like poverty, employment, and corporate social responsibility are expected to be greatly impacted by mining developments (Zmami et al., 2021). Inputs from mining are used to maintain population well-being. However, it can also have negative social and environmental effects, which could make the sector less prevalent with the public (Mancini & Sala, 2018). Mining releases significant amounts of heavy metal emissions into the atmosphere, causing an adverse effect on human health, biodiversity, and the environment (Almalki et al., 2019). The social aspects of the mining industry that seem to be most concerning are those linked to land usage and the effects on the environment that have an influence on human rights and health (Mancini & Sala, 2018). 2.2.2 Operational Steps in the Crushing Process 2.2.2.1 Pre-Crushing Preparations An effective mining process with dust mitigation should always begin with pre-crushing preparations, these initial operations significantly affect the subsequence crushing stages as they play a critical role in controlling dust emissions and increasing the overall process efficiency. Initiating the crushing process essentially starts by the determination and controlling of the characteristics of the feed materials according to the type of crushers that will be used. Including their size, moisture content and grindability. These physical properties directly influence dust generation during the crushing stages as more airborne particles are produced from harder and drier materials (Balasubramanian, 2017). Another critical step in the pre-crushing stage is ensuring the appropriate equipment size and calibration. A regulated maintenance check could prevent the exacerbation of dust emissions that caused by equipment malfunctions. An expert system is implemented in the crushing plant to optimize the operational parameters that reduces dust generation. This approach not only increase crushing process efficiency but also minimizes the dust emissions impacts on the nearby environment 23 (Leiva et al., 2018).Moreover, a well-structured plan of material flow and handling procedures is vital in pre-crushing stage in addition to the configuration of the crushing plant setup to ensure smooth flow of materials. That includes determining design factors such as the size of the feed materials, rotation speed of the crusher rotor and the distance between the accelerator and the annular platform to maintain continuous feed inside the crusher. Also, the layout of the crushing site should strategically be organized in order to minimize the distance that materials travel which reduces the potential for dust production (Akobirova et al., 2021). Before the crushing process, the rocks are blasted as an initial step, this step shown in figure 1, reduces the aggregate size and enhances the efficiency of the next steps. The morphology of the final aggregate product is ultimately affected by the initial blasting, which shows the importance of the pre-crushing for the optimization of aggregate characteristics (Rajan and Singh, 2020). Collectively, these pre-crushing preparations are considered as the foundation for effective dust control measures in mining operations. Figure 1: Rock blasting processess (Adeyi, Mbagwu and Okeke, 2019). 2.2.2.2 The Crushing Process In the context of mining operations, the crushing process typically consists of multiple stages including primary and secondary crushing. At primary crushing stage the large rocks are break down into manageable sizes typically ranging from 150 mm to 300mm using heavy machines such as jaw crusher or gyratory crushers. These machines operate according to the compression principle where 24 two heavy plates crushed the material between them. Following the primary stage the primary crushed materials are passed to the secondary crusher and the focus shifts toward achieving a finer material size targeting the remaining particles from primary stage to produce a more uniform and finer output often below 25 mm. Various types of crushers could be implemented during this stage including cone crushers that operated by using a rotating cone that moves through bowl shaped chamber or horizontal shaft impactors (HSIs) that uses a horizontal rotating shaft with hammers or blow bars that break the material by striking it (Balasubramanian, 2017). The choice of equipment in this stage can significantly affect the morphological characteristics of aggregate as shown in Error! Reference source not found.. The secondary stage not only enhances the particles size distribution but also improves the shape and surface texture of the particles which lead to high quality final product (Rajan and Singh, 2020). Table 2-1: Type of crusher according to material characteristics (Balasubramanian, 2017). Type Hardness Abrasion Moisture content Reduction Main use limit ratio Jaw Soft to very hard No limit Dry to slightly wet, 3/1 to 5/1 Heavy mining, crusher not sticky Quarried material, sand &gravel, recycling Gyratory Soft to very hard Abrasive Dry to slightly wet, 4/1 to 7/1 Heavy mining, crusher not sticky Quarried material Cone Medium hard to Abrasive Dry or wet, not sticky 3/1 to 5/1 Heavy mining, crusher very hard Quarried material, sand &gravel Horizontal Soft to medium Sightly Dry or wet, not sticky 10/1 to Quarried shaft hard abrasive 25/1 material, sand impactor &gravel, recycling 2.2.2.3 Post-Crushing Procedures Post-crushing procedures are essentially conducted to ensure the quality of aggregates and control dust emissions. After the secondary crushing process, the resulting materials should effectively be managed, which is critical to ensure environmental compliance and operational efficiency. The final 25 steps typically include screening and transportation of the crushed materials like shown in figure 2. In addition to dust control, rigorous quality assessment measures are conducted as a final step of the operation. The characteristics of the final product, such as angularity, texture, and size distribution are evaluated using special advanced techniques such as the Aggregate Image Measurement System (AIMS). This assessment provides precise data on parameters that affect the implementation of the final products in various applications (Rajan and Singh, 2020). The post-crushing quality control measures not only ensure meeting the industrial standards but also contribute to the overall cost control and sustainability of the mining process by the optimization of resources and reduction of the produced waste. Additionally. Implementing more measures, such as regular monitoring of vibration and noise levels from the overall crushing process, further contributes to more compliance with local regulations (Adeyi, Mbagwu and Okeke, 2019). Also, as the process sustainability of mining operations is critical, an important objective of post-crushing procedures is to ensure compliance with environmental regulations and standards. This approach not only reduces the environmental footprint of the mining operations but also provides employees and surroundings with a healthy working environment (Leiva et al., 2018). Overall, integrating post-crushing procedures is vital to the mining process as it maintains air quality and promotes sustainable practice. 26 Figure 2: Flow chart of the crushing processes 27 2.2.3 Challenges in crushing process and dust problem The first step in the production of aggregates is blasting the rocks, which is followed by crushing to improve aggregate shape and decrease aggregate size. Abrasion, cleavage or compression, and impact are the three main mechanisms that typically drive any comminution process as Figure 5. (Sairanen & Rinne, 2019). Figure 3: Different mechanisms of aggregate comminution (Sairanen & Rinne, 2019a). At several levels, the crushing mechanism directly affects the properties of aggregates, including particle size distribution and aggregate shape (Ulsen et al., 2019). For coarse particles, the concentrations were obtained at about 350 meters in quarries that used secondary crushing. The results inside the quarry were affected by local dust sources, like transfer. Dust production from crushing was higher than that from drilling (Sairanen & Rinne, 2019). 2.2.3.1 Dust generation on crushing process 28 Near many aggregate quarries, dust is a major environmental issue, and the most important cause is frequently crushing (Sairanen & Rinne, 2019). Coarse particles (TSP and PM10) make up most of the Figure 4: Particle size distribution curves of aggregates from concrete removed from buildings using impact and jaw crushers (Ulsen et al., 2019). dust produced during crushing. Emissions of fine particles, particularly PM1, were mostly minimal, a few tens of µg/m3 (Sairanen & Rinne, 2019). With increasing distance, the concentration of dust rapidly drops for all wind directions and size categories (TSP, PM10, PM2.5, and PM1) (Sairanen and Rinne, 2019). Using jaw and impact crushers, the products' particle size distribution curves are shown in Figure 4. The coarse fractions (above 4.8 mm) had a finer particle size distribution due to the impact crusher, whereas the fine particle sizes showed minimal variation (Ulsen et al., 2019). 2.2.3.2 Factors affecting dust generation Dust is a serious environmental threat, and crushing is thought to be the main source of it. Since several factors, including weather, study setup, and measurement locations, affect the results, dust measurements under real-world operational settings are challenging. Since the measurements of dust in quarries show widely disparate findings (Sairanen & Rinne, 2019). The only factors considered by industrial specifications for the particle size distribution of crushed aggregates are material resistance, feed size, and crusher characteristics (Ulsen et al., 2019). When the average moisture content and dust concentrations of the secondary crushing aggregate were compared, the lowest dust concentrations produced in the highest moisture content (6.7%) (Sairanen and Rinne, 2019). Understanding the 29 particle distribution in detail can be aided by considering the percentage of particles in each subcategory (low, moderate, high and extreme) ranges. (Rajan & Singh, 2020). 30 2.2.4 Types of Dust Generated During Crushing 2.2.4.1 Composition of Crushing Dust Crushing processes generate a variety of dust types, primarily composed of particulate matter that varies in size, chemical composition, and origin. The main components of crushing dust often include silica, which is found in significant quantities in many rock types and is a primary concern due to its health implications, particularly silicosis (Liu et al., 2023). Additionally, depending on the material being crushed, dust may contain metallic particles such as lead, copper, or zinc, which can pose further health risks (Sairanen, Rinne and Selonen, 2018). Organic compounds may also be present if the crushed material is organic in nature, such as certain types of limestone, which can harbor allergens and other harmful substances (Navarro-Ciurana, Corbella and Meroño, 2023). The chemical properties of limestone been evaluated according to EPA 7000B-2007 as Error! Reference source not found. and results shown that this type of material is constituted (main properties) by calcium (66%), steel (4.2%), silicon (26%) and magnesium (2.7%) (Veropalumbo, Viscione and Russo, 2019). Table 2-2: Chemical properties of limestone aggregates (Veropalumbo, Viscione and Russo, 2019). Parameters Unit Value Calcium mg/kg 190000 Steel mg/kg 12000 Silicon mg/kg 75000 Magnesium mg/kg 7800 2.2.4.2 Characteristics of Different Dust Types The characteristics of dust generated during crushing can differ based on several factors, including the type of material crushed and the method used. One of the key characteristics is particle size distribution, with dust particles ranging from fine (less than PM2.5) to coarse (greater than PM10). Figure 4 shows size distribution of quarry dust (Prakash and Hanumantha Rao, 2017). 31 This variation affects their behavior in the air and potential for inhalation (Liu et al., 2023). Morphology also plays a significant role; the shape and structure of dust particles can influence their health effects, as irregularly shaped particles may have different deposition patterns in the respiratory system compared to spherical particles (Kelly and Fussell, 2012). Additionally, the chemical reactivity of dust particles can affect their toxicity, as some dusts may react with moisture or other airborne substances, potentially leading to the formation of secondary pollutants (Sairanen, Rinne and Selonen, 2018). Lastly, solubility in biological fluids is an important factor, as it can influence the bioavailability and potential Classification Based on Size and Toxicit. Figure 5: Particle size distribution of 40 crusher samples of quarry dust (Prakash and Hanumantha Rao, 2017). 2.2.4.3 Classification Based on Size and Toxicity Dust generated from crushing can be classified based on size and toxicity, which has important implications for understanding its hazardous properties (Kelly and Fussell, 2012). Fine dust particles, such as PM2.5 and PM10, are particularly concerning due to their small size, which enhances their ability to interact with biological systems and transport toxic substances like silica, heavy metals, and organic compounds (Liu et al., 2023). Coarse dust, typically between PM10 and PM2.5, often 32 contains larger mineral particles and aggregates but may have reduced toxicity compared to finer fractions (Liu et al., 2023). Toxic dust classifications often highlight materials like respirable crystalline silica and certain heavy metals, both of which are known for their high chemical reactivity and potential to induce cellular damage (Navarro-Ciurana, Corbella and Meroño, 2023). The chemical composition plays a crucial role, as dust with bioactive or reactive compounds tends to be significantly more toxic. In contrast, non-toxic dust, composed of inert or chemically stable materials, poses less of a threat and may not require extensive mitigation (Kelly and Fussell, 2012). This focus on toxicity and chemical properties allows for better assessment of the health risks associated with exposure and provides a foundation for targeted dust control measures in industrial settings (Navarro-Ciurana, Corbella and Meroño, 2023). 2.2.5 Air Pollution from aggregate Industries 2.2.5.1 Air pollution from crushing process In aggregate industry fugitive dust emission appear at various points in the operation, between 30% and 70% of the fugitive dust emissions remained within the mine boundary (Sairanen & Rinne, 2019c). During operation significant dust emissions are produces in crushing process as a result of break down the limestone rocks (Ngole-Jeme & Fantke, 2017). In crushing produce mainly coarse Total Suspend particle (TSP) and PM10 dust particles, also fine particles PM 2.5 and PM1 (Sairanen & Rinne, 2019c). Dust concentration measurement have conducting three stations at: source which located inside the mine or within few tens to several hundred of meters from it, ambient which located farther away from the quarry compared to the source measuring stations, typically over a hundred-meter distance and background which located at the upwind direction from the quarry and usually at a long (kilometers’) distance (Sairanen et al., 2018). Measurements of course and fine particles located near the crusher or at the aggregate mine at downwind direction shows vibration of mass concentration from few tens of μg/m3 to over 6.5×103 μg/m3, ten μg/m3 and few hundreds of μg/m3 respectively (Sairanen & Rinne, 2019c). Air pollution level is modified based on seasonal variation. In Central Plains Urban Agglomeration, China, daily PM2.5 aerosol samples were collected for four consecutive seasons during 2017–2018, 33 in two locations ZZ and XX shown in Figure 6. The result in Table 2-3 shows concentrations of PM2.5 and its major chemical components were seasonally dependent, usually with the highest mass concentration in winter (Liu et al., 2019). Figure 6: Topographical conditions and location of the sampling sites in Zhengzhou (ZZ) and Xinxiang (XX). The round icons represent surrounding main cities. AY, Anyang; HB, Hebi; JC (Liu et al., 2019) 34 Table 2-3: Meteorological parameters, concentration of gaseous pollutants, PM2.5, and chemical compositions at ZZ and XX during sampling campaign. ZZ XX Spring Summer Autumn Winter Annual Spring Summer Autumn Winter Annual Metrological parameters Temperature (C ) 25.9 ± 29.8 ± 15.2 ± 3.1 ± 3.4 17.3 ± 25.7 ± 3.2 29.0 ± 2.6 15.2 ± 2.5 2.1 ± 2.4 16.8 ± 3.8 2.7 2.4 11.1 11.1 Barometric pressure 997 ± 992 ± 1010 ± 1014 ± 1004 ± 1000 ± 3.7 996 ± 3.3 1015 ± 4.4 1019 ± 4.5 1009 ± 3.5 3.1 4.2 4.5 (hPa ) 10.2 10.4 Relative Humidity 42.6 ± 71.2 ± 83.2 ± 49.5 ± 62.6 ± 45.2 ± 69.3 ± 8.6 74.5 ± 51.6 ± 60.9 ± 11.8 10.3 15.3 18.8 10.6 10.8 15.7 (%) 21.8 16.8 Wind speed (ms-1) 2.2 ± 2.4 ± 0.6 1.4 ± 0.6 2.0 ± 0.9 2.0 ± 0.8 2.6 ± 0.7 2.6 ± 0.8 1.8 ± 1.0 2.1 ± 0.9 2.2 ± 0.9 0.5 Concentrations of gaseous pollutants (μg m−3) O3 116.7 103.0 ± 28.8 ± 31.3 ± 65.1 ± 126.2 ± 111.8 ± 34.8 ± 30.4 ± 70.5 ± ± 35.7 25.4 16.7 16.8 27.7 26.1 15.6 15.1 46.2 47.9 SO2 28.8 ± 11.7 ± 18.7 ± 23.9 ± 20.5 ± 28.4 ± 9.9 16.9 ± 8.4 19.2 ± 5.4 30.6 ± 23.8 ± 8.4 1.5 6.9 9.3 16.7 9.4 12.5 NO2 49.3 ± 37.5 ± 56.1 ± 60.9 ± 51.6 ± 46.7 ± 8.3 24.7 ± 8.3 58.7 ± 70.0 ± 51.4 ± 12.9 10.5 17.2 27.6 15.1 26.9 20.7 24.2 COa 1.4 ± 1.5 ± 0.9 1.9 ± 1.3 1.8 ± 1.0 1.7 ± 1.1 1.2 ± 0.7 1.5 ± 1.2 2.2 ± 1.9 2.2 ± 1.4 1.8 ± 1.5 1.1 Concentrations of PM2.5 and chemical compositions (μg m−3) 35 PM2.5 53.9 ± 48.1 ± 65.3 ± 105.8 ± 70.5 ± 49.6 ± 43.4 ± 62.5 ± 109.9 ± 69.0 ± 20.6 17.9 31.1 76.0 13.2 16.4 25.4 63.8 50.8 46.3 SO42- 6.4 ± 10.0 ± 7.3 ± 3.2 7.9 ± 6.1 7.9 ± 4.6 7.2 ± 3.3 9.5 ± 4.3 7.6 ± 3.2 8.7 ± 5.9 8.3 ± 4.4 2.3 4.8 NO3- 3.1 ± 6.3 ± 5.8 14.1 ± 19.8 ± 11.7 ± 4.0 ± 2.1 6.9 ± 5.9 15.1 ± 8.2 19.3 ± 12.1 ± 1.5 8.6 16.9 14.4 12.2 11.1 NH4+ 2.5 ± 8.9 ± 4.7 10.1 ± 12.0 ± 8.8 ± 6.8 3.2 ± 1.8 8.8 ± 4.7 10.8 ± 4.3 12.4 ± 8.2 9.2 ± 6.4 1.4 4.2 9.3 CL- 0.3 ± 0.3 ± 0.3 1.5 ± 1.1 5.0 ± 3.0 2.0 ± 2.6 0.3 ± 0.3 0.4 ± 0.4 1.9 ± 1.2 5.4 ± 3.4 2.2 ± 2.9 0.4 K+ 0.5 ± 0.5 ± 0.3 0.6 ± 0.4 1.7 ± 1.1 0.9 ± 0.8 0.5 ± 0.2 0.5 ± 0.3 0.7 ± 0.4 1.9 ± 1.1 1.0 ± 0.9 0.2 Organic Matter 8.8 ± 6.2 ± 1.9 7.2 ± 3.8 18.4 ± 10.5 ± 8.3 ± 2.1 5.2 ± 1.7 6.9 ± 3.7 17.8 ± 9.9 ± 8.1 2.0 11.7 11.1 8.4 Elemental Carbon 3.4 ± 3.3 ± 0.9 4.6 ± 2.0 5.9 ± 3.7 4.4 ± 2.5 3.6 ± 1.2 3.3 ± 1.2 4.5 ± 1.8 6.5 ± 3.9 4.6 ± 2.7 0.7 Mineral Dust 6.1 ± 2.6 ± 0.8 4.0 ± 2.0 6.9 ± 4.2 4.9 ± 4.2 5.4 ± 5.4 1.9 ± 0.8 2.0 ± 1.1 3.6 ± 2.3 3.1 ± 3.1 6.7 Heavy Metals 0.3 ± 0.3 ± 0.1 0.4 ± 0.2 0.6 ± 0.3 0.4 ± 0.3 0.3 ± 0.1 0.3 ± 0.1 0.4 ± 0.3 0.6 ± 0.4 0.4 ± 0.3 0.1 a the unit of concentration of CO is mg m−3 36 2.2.5.2 Effects on Human Health Harmful effects of air pollution resulted of mining industry, posing serious health risks to nearby resident and worker (Tianliang et al., 2023). Exposure to heavy metals such as lead, copper and zinc caused poisoning is known to affect major human physiological systems including the skeletal, nervous, respiratory, excretory, and digestive systems. carcinogenic, they all have the potential to cause one or more health complications including skin damage, kidney disease, lung and nasal irritation and damage, fragile bones, nervous disorder cardiomyopathy, ulceration of stomach and small intestines, nausea, and decreased sperm count. Heavy metal and metalloid contamination are likely to have significant impacts on various ecosystems and local populations living in the vicinity of mining activities (Ngole-Jeme & Fantke, 2017). Gold mining is known to produce high concentrations of heavy metals and metalloids, and health complaints have been reported among the population in the gold mining community including dermatitis, influenza, chronic cough, and wheezing. Studies assessing human exposure to uranium in the area have reported lifetime cancer risk values as high as 1.01 × 10−3 (Ngole-Jeme & Fantke, 2017). Additionally High levels of Total Suspended Particles and PM10 cause significant health hazards. Research indicates that long-term exposure even to low concentrations of particulates in the air result in increased hospital admissions and daily mortality (Khazini, Dehkharghanian and Vaezihir, 2022). According to World Health Organization (WHO), when PM10 means concentration increases to 75 μg/m3 or 100 μg/m3, the hospital admissions increase to 3.8% ~ 8.8% and 5.1% ~ 11.7% and daily mortality increases 4.35% ~ 6.1% and 5.8% ~ 8.2%. Therefore, the exposure a health risk for mine workers especially those who are continuously working in the mine dump area (Khazini, Dehkharghanian and Vaezihir, 2022). Fine dust can penetrate deep into the lungs and has been associated with various health issues, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. This fine dust often contains silica, heavy metals, and organic compounds. In contrast, coarse dust typically deposits in the upper respiratory tract and may cause irritation (Kelly & Fussell, 2012). Figure 7 shows probability of deposition of particles in three regions of the head, tracheobronchial, alveolar, and total deposition in the respiratory tract based on particle size (Kamanzi et al., 2023). 37 Figure 7: Deposition profiles particles of particles sized between 0.1 and 100 μm under conditions of normal nasal breathing and oral breathing after light exercise (Kamanzi et al., 2023). Figure 8: Dry fog application for dust control (Garcia-Granda et al., 2024)Figure 2: Deposition profiles particles of particles sized between 0.1 and 100 μm under conditions of normal nasal breathing and oral 38 breathing after light exercise (Kamanzi et al., 2023). 2.2.5.3 Effect on Environment Minig industries caused air pollution, stating that negatively effecting the environment. Around the mine the vegetation is being destroyed due to human activity in the main (Tianliang et al., 2023). Mining operations with land degradation contribute significantly to soil erosion. Microbial activities in soil are also negatively affected by high concentrations of heavy metals, reduction in soil microbial population and distribution (Tianliang et al., 2023). Additionally, air pollution can negatively impact the surrounding ecosystems and biodiversity(Agboola et al., 2020). The pollutants released may contribute acids that released from oxidized minerals when some metals are exposure to the air which caused climate change as global scale impact (Sonter, Ali and Watson, 2018). Many heavy metals and metals released are toxic to plants and have the potential to bioaccumulate, posing health risks to animals, and ecosystems. The negative effects of metals on plants include oxidative stress, effects on fluorescence, stomatal resistance, chlorophyll and photosynthesis, reproductive processes, and seed germination (Ngole-Jeme & Fantke, 2017). Moreover, the increase in doses affecting animals was " doses of 17 mg/kg to 48 mg/kg body weight (BW) were fatal to birds, whereas some mammals were negatively affected by as doses of 2.5 mg/kg BW after oral exposure" (Ngole-Jeme & Fantke, 2017). 2.2.6 Recent Technologies for Dust Control 2.2.6.1 Water and Fog-Based Dust Control Systems 2.2.6.1.0 Dry Fog Dust Control System The dry fog technique is an effective method for controlling excessive dust during the crushing process in aggregate mining, producing fine water droplets consistently. This system utilizes a 2 HP air compressor and a 2500-liter tank, along with high-pressure nozzles for optimal performance as shown in Figure 8 (Garcia-Granda et al., 2024). The dry fog is produced by using compressed air to break down water particles into sizes ranging from 1 to 50 μm, with an average diameter of 20 μm, enabling effective distribution of water droplets in the air. (Chaulya et al., 2021). Its adaptability to 39 existing plant structures and cost-effectiveness make it a suitable solution for reducing dust emissions in industrial settings (Garcia-Granda et al., 2024). The fine water droplets evaporate quickly, adding less than 0.1% moisture to the handling material, which is important for maintaining material quality. The dry fog system is particularly effective in closed spaces, such as crushing and screening plants, where wind velocity is minimal (Chaulya et al., 2021). Figure 8: Dry fog application for dust control (Garcia-Granda et al., 2024) 2.2.6.1.1 Water Spray Dust Reduction Technology Water spray technology is a widely used method for dust reduction, employing nozzles to disperse water aiming to decrease airborne dust concentrations by 50% to 95%. This technique relies on the collision of sprayed droplets with dust particles, which increases their size and weight, causing them to settle due to gravity as represented in Figure 9. Several important factors influence effectiveness, including spray pressure, droplet size, and nozzle diameter; higher spray pressure results in smaller droplets, enhancing dust removal efficiency. While pure water is often used, it has limitations, such as generating high pressure and being less effective against respirable dust. Researchers have improved efficiency by adding wetting agents and magnetizing the water, with studies indicating that surfactant-magnetized water can boost dust reduction efficiency by 8.21% over non-magnetized water. Specific surfactants like sodium sec-alkyl sulfonate, cationic surfactant (1631), cocamidopropyl betaine, and nonionic surfactant (JFCS) have shown remarkable improvements, achieving over 90% dust reduction (Huang et al., 2024). In addition, there are two main types of nozzles: the Swirl Pressure Nozzle, which produces a fast-spinning flow of liquid, and the Internal Mixing Air–Liquid Nozzle, which generates high-speed flows of air and liquid that mix within the 40 nozzle itself; the latter enables finer atomization even at lower pressures as demonstrated in Error! Reference source not found.-4 (Han et al., 2023). Figure 9: Process of dust contact with droplets (Han et al., 2023) Table 2-4: Nozzle types for water spry system (Han et al., 2023). Nozzle type Swirl Pressure Nozzle Internal Mixing Air–Liquid Nozzle Atomization angle Increases with water pressure up Decreases with increasing to a specific limit, then decreases air pressure, increases with higher water pressure Droplet velocity Reach higher velocities, especially Lower velocities compared at pressures above 3 MPa to the swirl nozzle, within 10% Dust reduction efficiency Efficiency increases with higher Decreases as air pressure water pressure increases Best application for water 4 MPa 0.15-0.20 MPa pressure Effectiveness Good at reducing dust but uses a Efficient while using less lot of water water, suitable for longer distances Ideal use Most effective for spraying close Great for locations with to the target in high-pressure limited space and need 41 environments for long-range dust suppression 2.2.6.1.2 Chemical and Biological Dust Suppressants Chemical stabilization at the rolling folder level refers to the application of a fast-setting asphalt emulsion mixed with water to improve the soil's geotechnical characteristics. This method enhances properties like permeability and durability, and it can reduce dust by 95%. It was chosen for its efficiency in minimizing dust, low environmental impact, long-lasting results, cost-effectiveness, and ability to conserve water. Figure 10 shows different types of chemical stabilizers (Garcia-Granda et al., 2024). While Microbially Induced Carbonate Precipitation (MICP) is a technique that uses urease to create a biological dust suppressant. It helps in calcium carbonate formation, which binds dust particles and reduces dust emissions. Microorganisms, particularly Bacillus pasteurii, are more effective than urease alone, as they also act as crystal nuclei, enhancing cementation. MICP primarily produces calcite, with denser crystals improving polymerization. Bacillus pasteurii is environmentally friendly, cost-effective, and conserves water and energy, making it ideal for MICP applications (Shi et al., 2021b). Figure 10: Types of Chemical Stabilizers for dust control (Garcia-Granda et al., 2024) 42 2.2.6.1.3 Foam dust removal system The foam used for dust removal is made up of air, water, and a foaming agent. When the foaming agent is added, it lowers the surface tension of the water. This allows the foam generator to produce a lot of small, uniform foam, which can then be sprayed into the air or directly onto dust sources (Ren et al., 2014). Using mesh foam injectors can reduce suspended dust by 50% to 70%. This technology effectively covers dust sources, preventing their dispersion, while increasing the surface area available for dust binding. It enhances the ability to quickly wet the dust and improves the foam's adhesion to dust particles. Different foam generation devices are demonstrated in Table 2-5, and Figure 11 shows how foam technology outperforms water spray for dust control in mining operations. The foam system achieved 72% efficiency in removing total mine dust, significantly higher than the 39.45% efficiency of water spray. For respirable dust, foam technology reached 67% efficiency, compared to only 39.95% for water spray. Additionally, the foam-based approach resulted in a sharp reduction in water consumption compared to traditional spraying methods, indicating that foam technology not only offers more effective dust mitigation but is also more resource-efficient and environmentally friendly (Ji et al., 2022). Table 2-5: Different foam generation devices for dust reduction (Ji et al., 2022). Device type Principle Limitations Mesh Foam Generation Foam liquid is sprayed onto a High liquid pressure prevents Devices foaming net, forming a liquid film formation, while film that is then foamed by excessive air pressure makes compressed air it unsuitable for downhole applications Pore Filler Type Foam Foam is generated by The tiny channels are likely Generation Devices enhancing gas-liquid mixing to block and are difficult to through tiny pores in the clean filler Other Devices (Concentric Not limited by water quality Insufficient gas-liquid tube, Jet pump, Baffle type, or pressure mixing strength and low Three-phase turbo) foaming ratios fail to meet dust removal needs 43 Figure 11: Comparison of the efficiency of water spraying and foam for dust control (Ji et al., 2022) 2.2.6.2 Mechanical Dust Control Technologies 2.2.6.2.0 Dry Dust Collectors The dry dust collectors are classified into two types unfiltered dust collectors and filtered dust collectors as presented in Table 2-6 (Huang et al., 2024). Table 2-6: Different types of dry dust collectors (Huang et al., 2024). Dry dust collector type Unfiltered Dust Collectors Filtered Dust Collectors Inertial Dust Cyclone Dust Collectors Collectors Operation By using the inertia of Use centrifugal force Employ fabric dust particles. As air to separate dust. filters made from Dust-laden air enters fiber materials to flows, dust collides a cylindrical trap dust particles with a baffle, causing chamber, where from the air. capture due to spinning motion forces particles momentum. against the walls, allowing gravity to 44 collect them. Dust removal Efficiency 80% to 95% of dust, 90% dust of dust, Can Remove with higher influenced by design 98% to 99% of efficiencies at factors like cylinder fine dust (1-2 increased airflow height and air μm) under speeds velocity. optimal conditions, depending on filter design and material. 2.2.7 Health and Environmental Assessment in Aggregate Industries 2.2.7.1 Health risks measurements in aggregate industries In the mining industry workers and surrounding communities are subjected to significant health risks. The continuous dust generation leads to high levels of particulate matters that could be easily inhaled causing respiratory issues including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and silicosis (Garcia-Granda et al., 2024). Additionally, stone- crushing activities can generate hazardous particles emissions such a Jaflong and Sylhet these emissions are associated with the reduction in air quality posing both environmental and health risks (Ahmed et al., 2020). Agricultural productivity is also affected in mining areas, as dust can obstruct the stomata of plants which further affect the livelihood of nearby communities (Leghari et al., 2019). 45 2.2.7.2 In the mining industry workers and surrounding communities are subjected to significant health risks. The continuous dust generation leads to high levels of particulate matters that could be easily inhaled causing respiratory issues including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and silicosis (Garcia-Granda et al., 2024). Additionally, stone- crushing activities can generate hazardous particles emissions such a Jaflong and Sylhet these emissions are associated with the reduction in air quality posing both environmental and health risks (Ahmed et al., 2020). Agricultural productivity is also affected in mining areas, as dust can obstruct the stomata of plants which further affect the livelihood of nearby communities (Leghari et al., 2019). Risk Assessment Methodology The environmental protection agency (EPA) follows a systematic methodology for risk assessment to assess the potential health risks caused environmental exposure in mining sector. It employs a framework that includes four steps: Hazard identification, dose-response assessment, exposure assessment and risk characterization. Hazard identification determines wither there is a health risk caused by the substance or activity and it focuses on common contaminants such as particulate matter in mining sites. The dose-response studies the relationship between the adverse health effects and the level of exposure which gives an understanding of the effects of different concentrations of airborne dust and respiratory system. Next, exposure assessment quantifies the extent of human exposure to the potential environmental hazards. The quantification involves considering variables such as duration, frequency and exposure pathway. In mining site workers may be exposed to increasing levels of dust during operational stages such as crushing and transporting materials. Finally, risk characterization collectively uses the data from previous steps to determine the overall health risk. Providing a comprehensive idea of possible impacts (Lakshmi and Balakrishnan, 2009). 2.2.7.3 Environmental impact assessment (EIA) Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is conducted in aggregate industries to systematically evaluate and manage the environmental impacts of the aggregate mining process. In a study of Peru that is a region that suffers from high levels of PM10 and PM2.5 pollutions, excessive concentrations of dust effect both the environment and workers health that is by exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) standards (Garcia-Granda et al., 2024). The environmental impact assessment is conducted by gathering initial data on water and air quality, noise levels and stakeholder input collected through surveys and interviews to ensure that the community concerns are considered in the assessment. Also, operational activities starting from crushing process to product transport are analyzed as a potential air born particles source. These data are then used to predict guide mitigation 46 strategies and changes in environmental conditions (Shah et al., 2023). This systematic method ensures that environmental risks are considered in the aggregate industry and ensures the compliance with regulatory standards. Areas like Jaflong show intensive reduction in vegetation and land degradation due to mining operations, suggesting the need for stricter environmental standards to follow and maintain sustainability (Ahmed et al., 2020). Implementing sustainable practices such as dust suppression system, monitoring air quality and managing land use to control the potential long- term environmental impacts 2.3 Design Novelty 2.3.1 Custom Nozzle Design The design will optimize flow rate, speed, diameter, and pressure to enhance dust suppression across the mining site. By calculating the ideal flow rate, the dust suppressant can be applied evenly, while selecting the appropriate nozzle diameter will ensure effective droplet sizes for optimal adhesion. 2.3.2 Optimizing Process with AI – Based Models With drone technology, the design system operates efficiently to optimize dust suppression in mining sites. The drones are equipped with AI-based models that detect high dust concentration and start spraying the suppressant. 2.3.3 Flexible Design The design ensures that changes or removals of components do not affect overall functionality. This approach allows for replaceable parts that can be easily adjusted or exchanged, enabling smooth adaptation to varying mining conditions. Critical parameters such as flow rate and spray patterns can be modified without compromising performance. 47 48 Chapter 3 Design and Methodology Write brief description of this chapter. Briefly explain the subheadings (3.1, 3.2, …etc.) 3.1 Concept Design The system designed to control dust emissions from the secondary crusher process focuses on utilizing an environmentally friendly mixture and an innovative converging nozzle shape, incorporating a swirl pressure nozzle concept for spraying the mixture across open areas. This approach employs AI drones to effectively cover the entire area, significantly reducing the harmful impact of dust. The selected mixture is a dual-network hydrogel dust suppressant composed of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), xanthan gum (XG), acrylic acid (AA), sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate (SDBS), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and ammonium persulfate (APS) as reaction initiators. This environmentally safe dual-network hydrogel effectively reduces dust emissions by binding dust particles together, preventing them from being re-entrained into the atmosphere. Its adhesive properties and strong water retention create a hardened layer on dust surfaces, enhancing resistance to wind erosion. Additionally, the use of biodegradable materials ensures a low environmental impact, promoting eco-friendly practices and mitigating dust pollution. (Wei et al., 2021) The nozzle has been designed based on ISO 5167-3 with consideration of the mixture's properties, featuring a swirl pressure nozzle type and a converging shape. It has an inlet diameter of 48.4 mm and an outlet diameter of 20 mm, which reduces the mixture's pressure from 126 kPa to atmospheric pressure (101.3 kPa). The nozzle is constructed from stainless steel to ensure durability and resistance to environmental factors. Stainless steel is suitable for applications involving open areas. The cross- sectional area determines the flow capacity and load-bearing ability of the nozzle. Additionally, material properties such as yield stress and ultimate strength ensure durability in high-pressure environments. (Arrayago, Rasmussen and Real, 2020). 49 Based on ISO 18497, the nozzle will be installed on the DJI Agras T40 drone, which is well-suited for mining applications. The drone features a robust spraying system with a tank capacity of 50 kg, making it suitable for handling the prepared mixture effectively. The AGRAS T40 drone's advanced obstacle avoidance algorithms and large payload capacity (up to 50 kg) make it appropriate for open mining. Their effective dual-atomized nozzle spraying systems guarantee accurate material delivery, making them perfect for applications like fertilizer distribution and dust suppression. (AGRAS T20, 2023) 50 3.2 Design Flowchart Figure 13: Design Process Flow Chart (Sample). 51 3.3 Detailed Description of the Design To manage dust emissions at open mining sites, various materials have been researched and evaluated for their effectiveness in suppressing dust generated by crushers. Table 3-1 below summarizes the comparing aspects of each material, including cost, environmental and operational considerations, advantages, disadvantages, and Particulate matter removal efficiency %. The Score Range use to evaluate selected material and technology: - 0: N

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