Scientific and Technical Translation PDF

Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register as a Translation Problem HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST Introduction Scientific and technical (ST) register has been extensively treated as one of the specific features of LSP 1 communication (Sager, Dungworth 19...

Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register as a Translation Problem HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST Introduction Scientific and technical (ST) register has been extensively treated as one of the specific features of LSP 1 communication (Sager, Dungworth 1980). However, descriptions of ST register, being traditionally limited to lexical-terminological and syntactic levels have usually not extended beyond the sentence level. Although the topic of ST discourse phenomena has become more prominent in recent LSP discussions (e.g., Hoffmann 1985), cross- cultural variance has only been marginally featured in contrastive register analyses (Ulijn 1989). Contrastive descriptions of varying discourse phenomena in ST register, however, are a prerequisite for making technical and scientific register transparent and acces- sible as a problem of translation. Proceeding from the idea that ST register is related to the function of ST texts,2 the following article attempts to show that variant ways of presenting and sequencing information are regis- ter phenomena that reflect cross-culturally different author-reader relationships. 3 After discussing the general notion of register, this paper describes differing arrangements of "given" information to "new" information with respect to differing author-reader relationships and conventions. Then an attempt is made to establish and classi- fy criteria for describing discourse phenomena in ST register by 22 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register examining cross-cultural variation in "given"-"new" contracts between author and reader. The relevance of these differences as potential translation problems is shown on the basis of English- German examples, taken largely from the experience of co-trans- lating Samuelson & Nordhaus, Economics into German. This article will thus be limited to English written ST register in the field of economics and the discussion of possible German equivalents. 4 Scientific and Technical (ST) Register There is considerable confusion when it comes to defining register in general. 5 For our purposes, we will follow Ulijn's illustrative explication (1989:185ff) since it specifically accommo- dates ST register: "[register is the] verbal repertory of the speaker... a term originally drawn from music, suggesting the various drawers of a chest (the verbal repertory of the speaker) which are pulled out in any particular communication situation. One of such situa- tions is inherent in technical and scientific register." Descriptions of scientific and technical (ST) register in LSP research have been largely systems- or langue-oriented,6 concen- trating on such important lexical phenomena as frequency and distribution of terms and term-formation patterns resulting in neologisms and faux amis (misleading cognates; literally, "false friends"). On the syntactic level it was possible to isolate the more frequent use (in comparison with common language) of syntactic function words, participles, infinitives and the present tense. It was also established that sentences are likely to be lengthier, nominalizations more frequent, and the passive voice more popu- lar in ST texts. 7 On a sentence-transcending, i.e., textual or discourse level, however, systematic comparative studies are almost non- existent—a fact that may be largely due to the lack of linguistic criteria for description, which in turn results from the contro- versial theoretical status of discourse phenomena in general. 8  HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 23 Most of the lexical and syntactic analyses have focussed on the dichotomy 'languages for special purposes (LSP)—common language' in the interest of teaching foreign ST languages (not translation), and have led to the general conclusion that "languages are apparently similar from the textual point of view as well" (Ulijn 1989: 212). The assumption or likelihood of com- parative differences on the textual or discourse level, on the other hand, is a prerequisite for making the topic of ST register that exceeds the sentence level relevant to translation. For translation, a systems approach is a necessary but not a sufficient dimension since translation sets out from the parole level of language and consequently needs to encompass parole phenom- ena. It is, therefore, a necessary precondition for translation purposes to identify and describe discourse phenomena on a parole level before cross-cultural differences can be discussed. The following section will attempt to identify translation-specific discourse phenomena in ST register in terms of Information Dynamics and Information Packaging as they reflect differing author- reader conventions. Discourse Phenomena as Expressions of Culture-Specific Author-Reader Conventions In describing ST discourse as Information Dynamics and Informa- tion Packaging phenomena we will proceed from the idea that texts reflect language functions (Bühler 1934) and that the text function is manifested in the structure of the text,9 which in turn can be described as alternating sequences of "given" and "new" informa- tion, "given" or "new" in the sense that the author perceives the reader to consider the information imparted as either "given" or "new" and organizes the information in a way that makes these chunks of information (more or less easily) identifiable to the reader. It is important to emphasize that a text contains both, "given" and "new" information for the reader, "given" or "new" not in 24 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register absolute but relative terms: "given" or "new" relative to what the author perceives the reader to know ( = "given") or not to know (= "new"). Information in the text is thus not per se "given" or "new," but is "given" in the sense that the author thinks it is "given" (= known) or "new" (= unknown) to the reader (i.e., classified according to the author's perspective). Whether the information is indeed "given" to the reader, i.e., whether the reader can identify the author's intended "given" information as "given," depends on the reader's knowledge of the (text) world (reader's perspective). More specifically, it depends on whether the reader's knowledge of the (text) world is similar to what the author perceives the reader's (text) world knowledge to be or, in linguistic terms, to what extent the two perspectives of author and reader overlap with respect to shared assumptions in a specific communicative situation (cf. Mudersbach 1981, as applied in Gerzymisch-Arbogast 1987).10 Following Grice's cooperative principle of manner (Grice 1975:46),11 we can assume that ST register reflects an implicit agreement between author and reader about how (1) information that the author thinks is "given" or known to the reader and (2) information that the author thinks is "new" to the reader is pro- portioned and alternately arranged in a discourse. We can further assume that the proportions of "given" and "new" information in texts and their alternate arrangement is determined by convention as an "author-reader contract" which varies cross-culturally. For the purposes of this article we will proceed from the hypothesis that contrastive ST registers vary cross-culturally according to different types of implicit author-reader contracts which are determined by different cultural norms and that depending on the type of "author-reader contract," "given" and "new" information in texts may be provided in different quantities and/or proportions and may be differently presented and se- quenced. Author-reader contracts and their proportionate arrange- ment of "given"-"new" information in texts can be categorized into an author-oriented contract form, stressing the expressive language function (Bühler's Kundgabefunktion) and a reader-orient- ed contract form, stressing the vocative function of language  HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 25 (Bühler's Appellfunktion). These two forms constitute the extremes on a scale of author-reader contracts, i.e., on a scale of cross- culturally varying ST register types, a phenomenon that manifests itself in the way the author presents his information to the antici- pated reader in a closer (reader-oriented contract) or more distant way (author-oriented contract). Reader-oriented contracts or register types can be characterized by the author's intention to obtain the reader's "empathy" towards the information presented by trying to establish a "close- ness" with the reader. This is generally achieved by providing a great deal of "given" information to enable the reader to relate the "new" information to a familiar situation or experience. The reader-oriented strategy proceeds from the assumption that if a reader can identify more readily with the message the author wants to impart, the text appears more understandable and thus more "interesting" to him (cf. "Information Packaging" below). Author-oriented register types, on the other hand, are less considerate of the reader, focussing on the author's knowledge and qualifications, which are presented with the primary intention to convince the reader of the importance of the "new" message the author has to convey. Being less concerned with the reader's interest or ability to identify with or understand the message, the author can afford granting less "given" information, focussing instead on the presentation and development of "new informa- tion." Whether a more reader-oriented or a more author-oriented contract is the accepted norm in a particular culture depends on (1) the value system prevalent in a society with regard to the status of knowledge and science and technology (ST register) and (2) the relevant values of an individual vis-à-vis other individuals or the society as a whole. This may not be an "either/or" situation but rather measurable as values on a scale. 26 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register Describing Contrastive ST Register: Information Dynamics and Information Packaging Accepting the postulate that ST register can be classified according to differing author-reader contracts in terms of (more or less) "given" vs. "new" information, we can distinguish two dimensions for describing the differing arrangements of "given"- "new" units, (1) a macro-level dynamic perspective (Information Dynamics) and (2) a micro-level static perspective (Information Packaging): INFORMATION DYNAMICS On the macro-level of texts, Information Dynamics describes the way in which authors proportion and sequence the "given"- "new" information they want to convey to their readers. It is a dynamic measure in that it describes the arrangement and development of information throughout the text and is reflected in parameters such as: - Titling - Initiating - Sequencing Title Conventions Title conventions refer to what type of information is conveyed in what manner and how the title relates to the remaining text (Hellwig 1984). Based on "given"-"new" information, a title can serve the following basic functions: 12 - to indicate what the text following is about (reflecting Bühler's Darstellungsfunktion of language and the "informative" text function (Reiss 1976) based on Bühler's Darstellungsfunktion): Example: G. Brown & G. Yule, Discourse Analysis. Cambridge, 1983.  HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 27 In these cases the title is a factual "reduced paraphrase of the text" (Dressier 1973), serving only to inform the reader about the contents of the text following. The title here is "new infor- mation," signalizing the "new" information following in the text, i.e., is a "new-type" title. - to describe the author's attitude to the text following (reflecting Bühler's Kundgabefunktion of language and the "expressive" text function (Reiss 1976) based on Bühler's Kundgabefunktion): Example: L. Rosten, The Joys of Yiddish. New York, 1968. In this case the text following is characterized by the author from the author's perspective. The title here contains some "new" information, signalizing the text topic, but also "given" information—the author's attitude to the text—the attitude being "given" in the sense that the reader can identify with a (shared) feeling, value judgement or irony ( = given). These are "given/new-type" titles. - to attract or "lure" the reader into reading the text following (reflecting Bühler's Appelfunktion of language and the "vocative" text function (Reiss 1976)): Example: G. Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things. Chicago, 1986. In this case the author intends to make the text interesting to the reader; the title contains primarily "given" information in the sense that the reader "knows" the objects and/or events referred to in the text following, i.e., it is a "given-type" title. The way in which a title relates to a text as a "new-," "given/new" or "given-type" title varies cross-culturally. ST text titles commonly have the primary function of being "informative" about the following text, i.e., are "new-type" titles. However, different ST registers may allow varying ranges of secondary, 28 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register superimposed functions, i.e., "given/new-" and "given-type" titles. Initiating Information Initiating refers to the type of information presented first at the beginning of a whole text or chapter and how it is presented and ties in with the remaining text segments. Here, again, we can distinguish three different types of "given"-"new" arrangements according to Bühler's language and Reiss' text functions: - to indicate what the text following is about, (Bühler's Darstellungsfunktion and Reiss' "informative" text function): Example: This study will touch on a variety of topics in syntactic theory and English syntax, a few in some detail, several quite superficially, and none exhaustively. It will be con- cerned with the syntactic component of a generative grammar... Noam Chomsky, Aspects of a Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, 1965, p.3 (beginning of book). In this case the initiating statements are factual, indicating what the text following is about and how it is set up, inform- ing the reader about the text contents. Initiating is done here via introducing "new information," i.e., "new-type" initiating. - to describe the author's attitude or relationship to the text following (Bühler's Kundgabefunktion and Reiss' "expressive" text function) Example: I have already and repeatedly presented you, my learned friends, with my new views of the motion and function of the heart, in my anatomical lectures: but having now, for nine years and more confirmed these views by multi- plied demonstrations... I at length yield to the requests,  HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 29 I might say entreaties, of many, and here present them for general consideration in this treatise. William Harvey, An Anatomical Disquisition on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals. Chicago, 1952 (originally published in 1628), beginning of book.13 In this case, initiating serves to express the author's perspec- tive of the following text. It contains some "new" information, featuring the text topic, but also "given" information, featuring the author's perspective—an attitude being "given" in the sense that the reader can identify more readily with the per- sonal relationship or attitude, a (shared) feeling, value judg- ment allusion or irony. These are "given/new-types" of initiat- ing. - to attract or "lure" the reader into reading the text following (Bühler's Appellfunktion and Reiss' "vocative" text function): Example: If I begin chopping the foot of a tree, its branches are un- moved by my act, and its leaves murmur as peacefully as ever in the wind. If, on the contrary, I do violence to the foot of a fellow-man, the rest of his body instantly responds to the aggressions by movements of alarm or defense. The reason for this difference is that the man has a nervous system, whilst the tree has none. William James, The Principles of Psychology. Chicago, 1890/1952. Beginning of Chapter II. In this case the author intends to make the text interesting to the reader. The initiating statements contain primarily "given" information in the sense that the reader "knows" the objects and/or events, feelings, value-judgements, allusions and/or irony referred to in the following in the text, i.e., it is a "given-type" initiation. Like title conventions, the way in which a text is started, i.e., initiating is effected, varies cross-culturally. For ST texts, initiation typically serves the primary function of being "informative" about the text following, i.e., is "new-type" initiating. However, 30 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register different ST registers may allow varying ranges of secondary or flanking "given/new-type" or "given-type" initiating. Information Sequencing Information sequencing reflects an implicit author-reader contract in the way "given" and "new" information is chrono- logically or alternately arranged on a macro-level, i.e., in the entire text. We can distinguish three basic types: - "new-type" information sequencing, which follows cultural norms that require established, fairly rigid sequencing routines, proceeding from a set pattern of (1) "new" information (in the form of an argument, thesis or definition) that is theoretically developed (2). It may be substantiated by evidence (3) obtained on the basis of an acknowledged methodology (4) depending on the norm prevailing in a particular domain of science (natural sciences vs. humanities). "Given" information is op- tional or even uncommon. Texts like this are, therefore, diffi- cult to follow, "hard to read." An example for such "new-type" information sequencing is Wittgenstein's Tractatus. - "given/new-type" information sequencing presents the thesis and/or arguments as well as other text segments embedded in "given" information e.g., in the form of examples, alternating "new" chunks of information with "given" portions, and mak- ing the text easier to read. In Toulmin's argumentation chain (1958:104) the "thesis" element is typically embedded in "given" information. - "given-type" information sequencing typically begins with specific "given" information such as commonly-known phe- nomena and develops the "new" information (thesis, general rule or definition) from there. An albeit extreme example is Bonheim's article "What German Students Call their Cars," (German Life and Letters, 4/1984), featuring 57 "messages"  HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 31 ( = predications), including 33 Illustrative examples: more than 50% of the article's message is examples. Author-oriented ST register tends to follow "new-type 7 ' infor- mation sequencing, starting with and developing "new" infor- mation; reader-oriented contracts, on the other hand, typically use "given-type" information sequencing, starting from the known specific to the "new" information, with a possible use of alternate- ly varying "new" with "given" information. 14 INFORMATION PACKAGING Just as Information Dynamics describes the flow of text infor- mation, Information Packaging depicts the way in which authors "wrap up" the "given" and "new" information they want to convey to their readers; it is a static parameter, measuring how information is presented to the reader at a particular stage of the text. Information Packaging parameters include:15 - the frequent use of examples ( == illustrating the "new" mes- sage, by "framing" it into "given" information with which the reader is familiar) - personalizing the message (==establishing direct contact with the reader by frequent use of direct addresses like "you," "imperatives," and/or "rhetorical questions") - redundancies ( = coating "new" messages with information already "given" in the text itself) - reference (= the use of specific "given" vs. general informa- tion, which may create "closeness" vs. "distance") - terminological co-reference ( == the alternating use of quasi- synonymous terms or paraphrases ( = "given") for technical terms in an attempt to make the message more comprehensible to the reader) 32 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register - varying degrees of "formality" ( = the use of everyday speech and colloquialisms ( = "given") in ST texts, with which the reader can identify more easily than with Latin or Greek ex- pressions commonly found in ST texts). On the basis of the Information Dynamics and Information Packaging parameters shown in Fig. 1 we can proceed to examine our central hypothesis, i.e., that the generally recognized more hermeneutic-abstract kind of knowledge generation of German uses a more author-oriented register when compared with the more positivistic-pragmatic orientation of English which employs a more reader-oriented ST register. We can describe and "measure" author-oriented ST register specifically in that it typi- cally presents large "chunks" of "new" information, using "new- type" title-, initiating-, and information sequencing devices while reader-oriented ST register caters to the reader by Packaging the "new" information into "given" information via such devices as the frequent use of examples, personalizing the message, using specific reference, redundancies, terminological co-reference and varying degrees of formality. Information Dynamics Information Packaging (i.e., Macro/Dynamic) (i.e., Micro/Static) Title conventions Use of Examples Initiating Information Personalization Sequencing Information Redundancies Explicitness of Reference Terminological Co-Reference Formality Figure 1: Information Dynamics and Information Packaging Phenomena  HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 33 The Translation Dimension These differences in ST register may necessitate a considerable amount of adaptation in the way "given" and "new" information is proportioned, sequenced and presented—i.e., "given" informa- tion is expanded or reduced when it comes to translating ST texts involving culturally diverse ST registers. This can be illustrated using examples from the English original and the authorized German translation of the economic textbook Samuelson & Nord- haus, Economics. BASIC DECISIONS As stated previously, ST register phenomena have mostly been treated from the interests of teaching ST languages (Ulijn 1989) and have hardly been discussed as a cross-cultural translation problem (Reiss/Vermeer 1984, Newmark 1988, Hatim/Mason 1990). In fact, discourse phenomena in general—even without the ST dimension—have hardly been treated in their relevance to translation. Proceeding from the idea above, that a text's function is reflect- ed in its structure, which can be described in terms of alternating "given" and "new" information arrangement, translating involves the basic decision as to whether the source text function must be kept constant or can be varied (Reiss/Vermeer 1984). Constancy or similarity of ST function would render a more "literal" or "faithful" translation while varying the ST function might imply a considerable restructuring of the information contained in the source text to make it fit the target ST register. Varying the translation function could possibly involve changes in one or both parameters—Information Dynamics and Informa- tion Packaging—reflecting the different author-reader contracts. While Information Dynamics involves restructuring translation decisions on the macro-level of texts, i.e., regarding what type of "given" or "new" information in which logical arrangement is transferred from source to target text, Information Packaging as a static parameter involves decisions on the micro-level of texts, regarding the precise way in which "given" or "new" source text 34 □ Contraslive Scientific and Technical Register information is presented in the target ST register. It is clear that the macro-level decisions affecting Information Dynamics involve more re-structuring, i.e., possibly more adaptation than the micro- level decisions involved in Information Packaging. In concrete terms this means that translating ST texts from German into English may involve expanding or even newly creating ''given" information segments in texts, a problem that makes German→ English ST register translations much more difficult (one possible reason why it takes so long for German philosophical texts to be translated into English?). On the other hand, translations from English to German would involve adapting or reducing a lot of the "given" instances prominent in English ST register. For translation purposes, we therefore need to first establish the target text's function as being either source text- or target text- oriented before we can discuss possible ST register problems. If it is decided that the source text register is not to be maintained, Information Dynamics must be adapted to fit the target reader expectations, i.e., expanding (German→English translation) or reducing the "given" portions of information (English→German translation). If the source text register is to be maintained, no such restructuring on the macro-level has to occur. As far as Informa- tion Packaging phenomena are concerned, contrastive ST register norms most probably do call for changes in the "given"-"new" arrangements but these are less fundamental since they affect the micro-level of the text, and can thus be effected ad hoc. It is important to note that the translation problems resulting from cross-culturally differing ST registers cannot be solved in absolute terms but only relative to the basic decision of whether the translation function is to be kept constant ( = no restructuring of "given"-"new" arrangements on the macro-level with possible ad hoc restructuring of Packaging phenomena) or is to be adapted to fit the target culture ( = restructuring of "given"-"new" units on the macro- and micro-levels). In many cases, such as in the following examples, these basic decisions are not left to the translator to make but are specified by publishing houses or authors who want the translation done in a certain fashion. In our case, with Samuelson being a Nobel prize winner, the German translation was to preserve as much of the  HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 35 author's original "style" as possible. The following examples reflect this source-text orientation since no changes were made in Information Dynamics, but some changes were nevertheless necessary on the micro-level. Translation Examples of ST Discourse Phenomena INFORMATION DYNAMICS Title conventions As discussed above, a title or subtitle can serve various func- tions in its relation to the following text with the function of the title usually depending on cultural conventions. In contrastive terms, it can be said that German ST register norms call for new-type titles (cf. Hellwig 1984:12), while English ST titles seem to be more flexible, serving the function of also attracting the reader by providing him with "given" information. The following examples of sub-titles from Samuelson & Nord- haus, Economics, clearly follow English ST register norms, expos- ing the German reader to a different cultural norm. (The English original is followed by the authorized translation with page num- bers from each given in parentheses.) English Original German Translation Inside the Black Box: Aggre- Die 'black box' Makro- gate Supply and Demand Ökonomie von Innen: Gesamt- (88) angebot und Gesamtnachfrage (157), To TIP or not to TIP (253f) TIP oder kein TIP - das ist die Frage (383f) Consumers as Wizards? (415) Jeder Konsument ein Hexen- meister? (639) Roundaboutness (653f) Der Produktionsumweg (357f) 36 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register Awash with profits (660f) Schwimmen die Unternehmen im Geld? (357f). In German, the "vocative" function inherent in the translated subtitles do not all conform to ST register norms, although they were largely preserved following the translation function of re- flecting the source text-oriented register. Initiating Information English academic texts often seem to start out with a very general statement, a practical example or a rhetorical question to "hook up" the "new" information following in the text to some- thing that is "given," i.e., to "tune in" the reader with the topic the author is about to discuss. They thus often feature "given/new" or "given-type" initiation. Although this may not necessarily always be the case, the English author seems to have the choice, whereas German ST register norms typically call for initiating an academic text with the object and aims of a study, i.e., with "new-type" initiation. A fitting example, therefore, is that Samuelson & Nordhaus start out their textbook with the rhetorical question: English Original German Translation: Why study economics? (3) Wozu soll man überhaupt Wirtschaftswissenschaft studieren. Erfahrungsgemäß... (27). This question would seem rather unusual to a German student who at the point when he starts reading an introductory textbook has already made his decision to study economics. Again, the German translation reflects the English reader- oriented ST register norms but resorts to German "Packaging" norms to make the text less "alien" to German readers: in the present case by avoiding the direct address of the reader and using the depersonalized general pro-form of man.  HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 37 Information Sequencing ST register in German follows a fairly rigid "new-type" infor- mation sequencing pattern, proceeding from information on the text's or study's object, aim and set-up to describing its metho- dology and results, presenting large "new" chunks of information in an orderly sequence expected by the academic reader. In English ST register, on the other hand, information sequenc- ing does not seem to necessarily follow such a rigid sequence, but arranges "new" chunks of information alternating with "given" information (examples, redundancies, specific reference; see below), thus helping the reader relate to and integrate the "new" messages with something already known. English ST register thus seems to give the author a choice between "new," "given/new" or "given-type" information sequencing. In Samuelson & Nordhaus, "given-type" information sequenc- ing is primarily used as illustrated in the following passage, which appears under the subtitle "Transactions Demand": English Original: People and firms need money as a transactions medium. House- holds need money to buy groceries and pay for electricity and fuel bills as well as occasional large consumer durables. Firms need money to pay for materials and labor. These elements constitute the transactions demand for money... (315) The author first talks about people and firms and their needs for money, thus progressing to explaining the concept of the transactions demand for money. The German reader would expect that "transactions money" be defined or at least be the topic of the subsequent paragraph or, in this case, the chapter. The translation reflects English ST register in terms of Informa- tion Dynamics, although Information Packaging was adapted to reflect German ST norms by making more frequent use of nomi- nalizations. 38 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register German Translation: Die privaten Haushalte und die Unternehmen brauchen Geld zur Abwicklung von Transkationen: Die Haushalte zum Einkauf von Lebensmitteln, zur Begleichung von Elektrizitäts- und Benzin- rechnungen ebenso wie gelegentlich zum Kauf von langlebigen Konsumgütern. Die Unternehmen brauchen Geld zur Finan- zierung von Material und Arbeitskräften. Aus diesen Kompo- nenten setzt sich die 'Nachfrage nach Transaktionsgeld' zu- sammen. (Vol. I, 488). We can see that target-text ST register norms do not neces- sarily require information re-structuring on the macro-level, but that a certain adaptation to ST register norms can be effected by resorting to target-text Packaging norms. Varying ST registers can thus be treated in the sense of a "displaced equivalent" (versetztes Äquivalent, Reiss/Vermeer 1984:160). INFORMATION PACKAGING Use of Examples The use of examples can be viewed from the perspective of their relative, dynamic frequency vis-à-vis other segments of the text or in their absolute static function of illustrating a "new" message by "en-coating" it into "given" information. The following example from Samuelson and Nordhaus illus- trates this category: English Original: But can misperceptions about wages and prices really lie behind deep depressions and persistent bouts of unemployment? Did it really take people a full decade to learn how hard times were in the Great Depression? Like Rip Van Winkle, did people fall asleep on the job in 1929 and not wake up until full employment returned in 1943? (342) Here, the use of the "given" information (Rip Van Winkle) is combined with a set of rhetorical questions, which have an addi- tional personalizing effect on the reader. Original German ST  HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 39 register would probably not provide such an example in an aca- demic text, but in the present German translation, Information Dynamics was kept and English ST register maintained. German translation: Aber können Fehleinschätzungen über Lohn- und Preisentwick- lungen wirklich tiefgreifende Rezessionen und anhaltend hohe Arbeitslosenquoten heraufbeschwören? Brauchte man wirklich ganze zehn Jahre urn zu begreifen, wie schlecht die Zeiten während der Weltwirtschaftskrise waren? Schliefen die Leute 1929 über ihrer Arbeit ein und wachten, wie der nach 20 Jahren aus dem Tiefschlaf wiedererwachende Rip van Winkle, erst wieder auf, als 1943 wiederum Vollbeschäftigung herrschte? (Vol. 1, 529). Apart from the fundamental question of Information Dynamics and Information Packaging, the translation of examples is often complicated by the fact that they are culture-specific. They can only fulfil their function of providing the reader with "given" information, i.e., illustrative purposes, if the reader can relate to the quoted example. This may not be the case cross-culturally: Rip Van Winkle is a less prominent figure in Germany than in the U.S. Among the five strategies suggested by translation theory (Koller 1979 162-166), a "defining paraphrase" was chosen in the German translation (indicated in italics above). Personalizing a Message A statement can be made more personal by directly addressing the reader using "you," "imperatives" and/or "rhetorical ques- tions." The combination of these devices to render a text more "readable" are particularly frequent in Samuelson & Nordhaus: English Original Example: Be skeptical of approaches that claim to have found the quick route to success. You can't get rich by consulting the stars (although unbelievably, some investment advisers push astrol- ogy onto their clients). (291) 40 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register The German translation eliminates the imperative and the direct address, which are still very uncommon even in general, common language texts and uses the impersonal man instead: German Translation: Bei allen Aussagen, die für sich beanspruchen, einen schnellen Weg zum Erfolg zu weisen, ist Vorsicht geboten. Man kann nicht reich werden, wenn man auf die Sterne vertraut (obgleich es einigen Investment-Beratern wider besseres Wissen gelungen ist, ihre Kunden für die Astrologie zu erwärmen). (Vol. I, 455) Redundancies Redundancy of information typically exists when information that is already "given" earlier in the text is used to "coat" "new" information. English Original: While this view may have some microeconomic merit, it misses the larger point that 'the essence of monetary control is to set legal reserve requirements too high'. By setting them so high, the Fed can be assured that banks will not want to hold excess reserves and the Fed can thereby control the supply of money. (274) In the first sentence "to set legal reserve requirements too high" is "new" information upon being introduced, but "given" information once the reader gets to the second sentence which provides the reasons for such a Fed policy as "new" information. This "new" information in the second sentence is now explicitly "en-coated" into the reiteration of the previous sentence's infor- mation. In German ST register, redundancies by reiteration of informa- tion are generally avoided. Instead, pronominal adverbs are often used to resume "given" information, leaving it to the reader to make the "linking" hypothesis between two sentences. This phenomenon is reflected in the following translation:  H E I D R U N G E R Z Y M I S C H - A R B O G A ST □ 41 German Translation: Während diese Betrachtung mikroökonomisch möglicherweise Vorteile bietet, geht sie insofern am Wesentlichen vorbei, als 'der Steuerung der Geldmenge der Grundsatz zugrunde liegt, daß die Mindestreservesätze bewußt zu hoch angesetzt werden.' Damit will die Zentralbank sicherstellen, daß die Banken kein Interesse haben, darüber hinaus Überschußreserven zu halten und kontrolliert so die Geldmenge. (432) Explicitness of Reference As a discourse p h e n o m e n o n , explicitness of reference features the choice between specific vs. general reference. It seems to vary with more or less reader-oriented contracts a n d influences "closeness" or "distance" between reader a n d author. Specific information provides security by increasing the reader's ability to identify, which leads to more closeness tha n a general statement that is o p e n to interpretation. Generalization open s room for doubt a n d t h u s insecurity, lowering the ability to identify a n d leaving a greater distance between reader a n d author. By this packaging parameter English ST register also seems to reflect a closer author-reader relationship, as the following high- lighted examples of specific reference show: Original English Example: An efficient market is one where all new information is quickly understood by market participants and becomes immediately incorporated into market prices. For example, say that Lazy T-Oil Company has just struck oil in the Gulf of Alaska. This is announced at 12:30 a.m. on Tuesday. When will the price of Lazy T-'s shares rise? Wednesday morning after J.R. has read the Wall Street Journal. Or perhaps after lunch on Tuesday, when the stock analysts have had time to chew it over a bit? Or perhaps a week later, after Grandpa has placed his order to his St. Louis broker? No, says the efficient market theory. (288) In German, ST register calls for general reference—in analogy to the tenet that "good" theory needs to have a high level of generality a n d along with generality a high level of abstraction. 42 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register Following this precept, this whole example paragraph would probably be omitted, since the information (i.e., that all new information is incorporated into the market prices immediately) is already given in the first sentence. As a compromise between the German norm and the desire to keep the source-oriented register, the specific references to Lazy-T Oil Company and Grandpa were generalized. German Translation: Ein effizienter Markt liegt dann vor, wenn neue Informationen rasch von den Marktteilnehmers absorbiert und sofort in die Marktpreise integriert werden. Nehmen wir zum Beispiel an, eine Ölgesellschaft im Golf von Alaska sei gerade auf neue Ö1- vorkommen gestoßen. Diese Neuigkeit wird an einem Dienstag mittag um 11.30 bekanntgegeben. Wann würden die Aktien- kurse der Ölgesellschaft steigen? Am Mittwoch früh, nachdem J.R. Ewing die Nachricht im Wall Street Journal gelesen hat? Oder bereits am Dienstag nachmittag, wenn die Börsenexperten in der Mittagspause Zeit genug hatten, die Neuigkeit zu verdauen? Vielleicht auch erst nach einer Woche, wenn irgendwo irgendje- mand eine entsprechende Order beim Börsenmakler plaziert? Die Theorie des effizienten Marktes verneint all diese Fragen.... (Vol. I, 451) Terminological Co-Reference Using alternating paraphrases ( = "given" information) for technical terms in an attempt to make the message more compre- hensible to the reader is very common in ST register but can also lead to vagueness (Gerzymisch-Arbogast 1987, 1989). It is some- times hard for the non-expert reader or translator to correlate alternating expressions to one underlying "meaning" of a term. English Original: We summarize as follows: The demand for M (Ml) arises from our need for a medium of exchange, that is from a transactions demand. We hold currency and checking accounts to buy goods and pay our bills. As our incomes rise, the value of the goods we buy goes up and we therefore need more money for  HEIDRUN GERZYMISCH-ARBOGAST □ 43 transactions, raising our demand for M. The transactions demand for M will be sensitive to the cost of holding money. (317) In this passage the demand for M (M1) is co-referent with demand for M and transactions demand for M, (with M being set equal with M l earlier). The resulting vagueness is kept in the following translation: German translation: Wir fassen also wie folgt zusammen: Die Nachfrage nach Geld (Ml) entsteht aus dem Bedürfnis nach einem Tauschmittel, das heißt, aus einem Bedarf an Transaktionsgeld. Wir halten Münz- und Papiergeld, ebenso wie scheckfähige Einlagen zum Kauf von Gütern und zur Begleichung unserer Rechnungen. Bei steigendem Einkommen steigt auch der Wert der gekauften Güter, und zur Abwicklung von Transaktionen brauchen wir zusätzliches Geld. Damit steigt unsere Nachfrage nach Ml. Die Nachfrage nach Transaktionsgeld reagiert empfindlich auf die Kost- en für die Geldhaltung.... (Vol. I, 491). Varying Degrees of Discourse "Formality" In English ST register, the line between the written and spoken modes of language does not seem to be as clear-cut as it is in German, where the use of everyday speech and colloquialisms in ST texts is uncommon. Again, using "common language" can be viewed as presenting the reader with something familiar from everyday experience (= "given"), with which it is easier and more comfortable to identify rather than with abstract Latin or Greek terms. Examples of "formality" are numerous in Samuelson & Nord- haus: English Original: Those who have studied the performance of chartism say, 'The chartists generally end up with holes in their shoes. So forget it. ' (291) 44 □ Contrastive Scientific and Technical Register German Translation: Erfahrene Investoren sind allerdings der Meinung, daß die Chartists auf verlorenem Posten stehen und ihre Methode wenig Aussicht auf Gewinn verspreche. (Vol. I,455) Or the description of the 1929 stock market crash: English Original: The bottom fell out of the market.... The market fell still further.... The soaring bull market was over. The sagging bear (declin- ing) market had taken its place. And as the former had lived on its dreams, so the latter was consumed by its own nightmares. (286). German Translation: Die Kurse fielen ins Bodenlose.... Der Markt drückte die Kurse immer weiter.... Die phantastische Hausse war vorüber. An der Börse herrschte die Baisse. Und wie zuvor die Hausse vom Optim- ismus gelebt hatte, so wurde die Baisse von dem durch sie hervorge- rufenen Pessimismus genahrt. (Vol. I, 448). The more "formal" pattern in German is achieved by: - the use of "dissociated" terms (Leisi 1974:57ff) as in the case of the French terms Hausse and Baisse (for the metaphoric bull and bear markets) and expressions like Optimismus, Pessimismus) - substituting colloquialisms for more formal expressions (English: end up with holes in their shoes; forget it; German: auf verlorenem Posten stehen; wenig Aussicht auf Gewinn versprechen); - lengthy premodifiers instead of relative clauses (English: its own nightmares; German: den durch sie hervorgerufenen Pessi- mismus). - "displaced" equivalents, i.e., using formal ST register features wherever possible to balance the "colloquial" effect of the English original (like using complex function verbs: 'keine zusätzlichen Mittel zur Verfügung haben' instead of just the verb verfügen).