Earth In Space Science Revision PDF

‭Earth‬‭In‬‭Space‬ ‭Introduction‬ -‭ ‬ ‭Earth‬‭is‬‭one‬‭of‬‭8‬‭planets‬‭in‬‭the‬‭s olar‬‭s ystem‬ ‭-‬ ‭Earth‬‭m oves‬‭through‬‭s pace‬‭in‬‭an‬‭orbit‬ ‭-‬ ‭Earth‬‭orbits‬‭the‬‭s un‬‭c ause‬‭of‬‭the‬‭s un's‬‭gravitational‬‭force‬‭pulling‬‭on‬‭earth‬...

‭Earth‬‭In‬‭Space‬ ‭Introduction‬ -‭ ‬ ‭Earth‬‭is‬‭one‬‭of‬‭8‬‭planets‬‭in‬‭the‬‭s olar‬‭s ystem‬ ‭-‬ ‭Earth‬‭m oves‬‭through‬‭s pace‬‭in‬‭an‬‭orbit‬ ‭-‬ ‭Earth‬‭orbits‬‭the‬‭s un‬‭c ause‬‭of‬‭the‬‭s un's‬‭gravitational‬‭force‬‭pulling‬‭on‬‭earth‬ ‭Night‬‭&‬‭Day‬ -‭ ‬ ‭Earth‬‭rotates‬‭on‬‭its‬‭own‬‭axis‬ ‭-‬ ‭Earth’s‬‭axis‬‭is‬‭an‬‭imaginary‬‭s traight‬‭line‬‭that‬‭is‬‭tilted‬‭at‬‭an‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭23.5‬‭degrees‬ ‭-‬ ‭This‬‭rotation‬‭takes‬‭24‬‭hours‬‭to‬‭c omplete‬‭and‬‭results‬‭in‬‭day‬‭and‬‭night‬ ‭-‬ ‭When‬‭the‬‭earth‬‭rotates‬‭the‬‭s ide‬‭facing‬‭the‬‭s un‬‭experiences‬‭day,‬‭while‬‭the‬‭s ide‬‭facing‬‭away‬ ‭from‬‭the‬‭s un‬‭experiences‬‭night‬‭time.‬ ‭Earth’s‬‭Seasons‬ -‭ ‬ ‭The‬‭part‬‭of‬‭the‬‭earth‬‭that‬‭gets‬‭the‬‭m ost‬‭direct‬‭s unlight‬‭c hanges‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭s outhern‬‭Hemish]phere‬‭experiences‬‭s ummer‬‭when‬‭it‬‭is‬‭tilted‬‭towards‬‭the‬‭s un‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭Northern‬‭Hemisphere‬‭will‬‭then‬‭experience‬‭winter‬‭as‬‭it‬‭is‬‭tilted‬‭away‬‭from‬‭the‬‭s un‬ ‭M easuring‬‭time‬ ‭-‬ ‭Earth‬‭takes‬‭approx‬‭24‬‭hours‬‭to‬‭c omplete‬‭one‬‭rotation‬‭around‬‭its‬‭axis‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭m oon‬‭takes‬‭approx‬‭27‬‭days‬‭to‬‭c omplete‬‭one‬‭revolution‬‭around‬‭earth‬ ‭-‬ ‭Since‬‭Earth‬‭also‬‭m oves‬‭it‬‭s eems‬‭that‬‭the‬‭m oon‬‭takes‬‭longer‬‭to‬‭c omplete‬‭its‬‭orbit‬‭29‬ ‭½ ,‬‭historically‬‭a‬‭m onth‬ ‭-‬ ‭Earth‬‭takes‬‭365‬‭¼ ‬‭to‬‭c omplete‬‭one‬‭revolution‬‭around‬‭the‬‭s un.‬ ‭Longest‬‭Day‬‭O f‬‭The‬‭Year‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭longest‬‭day‬‭of‬‭the‬‭y ear‬‭is‬‭c alled‬‭the‬‭s ummer‬‭s olstice‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭s ummer‬‭s olstice‬‭occurs‬‭when‬‭the‬‭earth’s‬‭tilt‬‭towards‬‭the‬‭s un‬‭is‬‭at‬‭its‬‭m aximum‬ ‭s o‬‭the‬‭s un‬‭appears‬‭at‬‭its‬‭highest‬‭point‬‭in‬‭the‬‭s ky,‬‭for‬‭a‬‭long‬‭period.‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭day‬‭with‬‭the‬‭fewest‬‭hours‬‭of‬‭daylight‬‭is‬‭c alled‬‭the‬‭winter‬‭s olstice‬ ‭-‬ ‭This‬‭is‬‭when‬‭the‬‭earth’s‬‭tilt‬‭is‬‭at‬‭its‬‭m aximum‬‭distance‬‭from‬‭the‬‭s un‬ ‭-‬ ‭There‬‭are‬‭2‬‭days‬‭during‬‭the‬‭y ear‬‭with‬‭the‬‭s ame‬‭no.‬‭of‬‭hours‬‭as‬‭night‬‭hours,‬‭these‬ ‭days‬‭are‬‭c alled‬‭the‬‭s pring‬‭equinox‬‭in‬‭September‬‭and‬‭the‬‭autumnal‬‭equinox‬‭in‬‭M arch‬ ‭-‬ ‭O n‬‭these‬‭days‬‭the‬‭earth‬‭ii‬‭neither‬‭tilted‬‭towards‬‭nor‬‭away‬‭from‬‭the‬‭s un‬ ‭Looking‬‭up‬‭from‬‭earth‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭m oon‬‭is‬‭the‬‭only‬‭natural‬‭s atellite‬‭of‬‭Earth‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭m oon‬‭takes‬‭the‬‭s ame‬‭amount‬‭of‬‭time‬‭to‬‭c omplete‬‭one‬‭full‬‭turn‬‭about‬‭its‬‭axis‬‭as‬‭it‬ ‭takes‬‭to‬‭orbit‬‭Earth‬ ‭-‬ ‭O nly‬‭one‬‭face‬‭of‬‭the‬‭m oon‬‭c an‬‭be‬‭s een‬‭from‬‭Earth‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭near‬‭s ide‬‭of‬‭the‬‭m oon‬‭always‬‭faces‬‭toward‬‭Earth,‬‭while‬‭the‬‭far/‬‭dark‬‭s ide‬‭faces‬ ‭away‬‭from‬‭Earth‬ ‭-‬ ‭41‬‭per‬‭c ent‬‭of‬‭its‬‭s urface‬‭is‬‭never‬‭v isible‬‭from‬‭Earth‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭m oon‬‭has‬‭no‬‭atmosphere,‬‭air,‬‭wind,‬‭or‬‭rain,‬‭m eaning‬‭no‬‭erosion.‬ ‭Phases‬‭of‬‭the‬‭m oon‬ ‭-‬ ‭At‬‭night,‬‭when‬‭the‬‭s ide‬‭of‬‭the‬‭m oon‬‭facing‬‭the‬‭Earth‬‭is‬‭c ompletely‬‭c overed‬‭in‬‭s unlight‬ ‭in‬‭darkness,‬‭y ou‬‭s ee‬‭a‬‭full‬‭m oon.‬ ‭-‬ ‭When‬‭the‬‭m oon‬‭is‬‭between‬‭the‬‭s un‬‭and‬‭earth,‬‭the‬‭s ide‬‭facing‬‭earth‬‭faces‬‭away‬‭from‬ ‭the‬‭s un‬‭and‬‭is‬‭in‬‭c omplete‬‭darkness;‬‭y ou‬‭c annot‬‭s ee‬‭it.‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭different‬‭s hapes‬‭of‬‭the‬‭m oon‬‭that‬‭y ou‬‭s ee‬‭from‬‭Earth‬‭are‬‭c alled‬‭phases‬ ‭-‬ ‭During‬‭the‬‭period‬‭between‬‭a‬‭new‬‭m oon‬‭and‬‭a‬‭full‬‭m oon‬‭it‬‭is‬‭s aid‬‭to‬‭be‬‭waxing,‬‭as‬‭it‬ ‭c hanges‬‭between‬‭the‬‭full‬‭m oon‬‭and‬‭the‬‭new‬‭m oon,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭waning.‬ ‭Lunar‬‭Eclipse‬ ‭-‬ ‭A‬‭lunar‬‭eclipse‬‭occurs‬‭when‬‭the‬‭m oon‬‭passes‬‭through‬‭the‬‭Earth’s‬‭s hadow‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭m oon‬‭receives‬‭no‬‭m ore‬‭light‬‭from‬‭the‬‭s un‬‭and‬‭c an‬‭no‬‭longer‬‭be‬‭s een‬‭from‬‭Earth‬ ‭-‬ ‭This‬‭c an‬‭only‬‭happen‬‭during‬‭a‬‭full‬‭m oon,‬‭when‬‭Earth‬‭lies‬‭between‬‭the‬‭s un‬‭and‬‭m oon‬ ‭-‬ ‭When‬‭the‬‭m oon‬‭passes‬‭through‬‭the‬‭earth's‬‭s hadow/‬‭umbra,‬‭a‬‭total‬‭lunar‬‭eclipse‬ ‭occurs.‬ ‭-‬ ‭A‬‭partial‬‭lunar‬‭eclipse‬‭occurs‬‭as‬‭only‬‭a‬‭portion‬‭of‬‭the‬‭light‬‭is‬‭blocked‬‭by‬‭the‬‭earth's‬ ‭penumbra‬ ‭Solar‬‭Eclipse‬ ‭-‬ ‭In‬‭a‬‭s olar‬‭eclipse,‬‭the‬‭m oon‬‭passes‬‭between‬‭the‬‭s un‬‭and‬‭the‬‭earth‬ ‭-‬ ‭In‬‭a‬‭total‬‭s olar‬‭eclipse,‬‭the‬‭m oon‬‭is‬‭located‬‭in‬‭a‬‭location‬‭where‬‭all‬‭of‬‭the‬‭s un’s‬‭light‬‭is‬ ‭blocked‬‭by‬‭the‬‭m oon‬ ‭-‬ ‭In‬‭a‬‭partial‬‭eclipse‬‭or‬‭annular‬‭s olar‬‭eclipse,‬‭only‬‭part‬‭of‬‭the‬‭s un‬‭is‬‭blocked‬‭by‬‭the‬ ‭m oon‬ ‭Tides‬ ‭-‬ ‭Tides‬‭m ostly‬‭occur‬‭due‬‭to‬‭the‬‭gravitational‬‭pull‬ ‭-‬ ‭M ost‬‭places‬‭on‬‭Earth‬‭receive‬‭2‬‭high‬‭tides‬‭and‬‭2‬‭low‬‭tides‬‭a‬‭day‬ ‭The‬‭effect‬‭of‬‭the‬‭s un‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭s un‬‭also‬‭influences‬‭tides‬ ‭-‬ ‭But‬‭because‬‭it‬‭is‬‭further‬‭away,‬‭its‬‭gravitational‬‭force‬‭has‬‭m uch‬‭less‬‭effect‬‭than‬‭the‬ ‭m oons.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Its‬‭gravitational‬‭force‬‭is‬‭greater‬‭because‬‭it‬‭is‬‭m uch‬‭c loser‬‭to‬‭Earth.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Spring‬‭tides‬‭are‬‭v ery‬‭high‬‭tides‬‭that‬‭occur‬‭during‬‭a‬‭new‬‭or‬‭full‬‭m oon‬ ‭-‬ ‭Neap‬‭tides‬‭are‬‭weak‬‭high‬‭and‬‭low‬‭tides‬‭that‬‭occur‬‭when‬‭the‬‭s un‬‭and‬‭the‬‭m oon‬‭ar‬‭not‬ ‭in‬‭the‬‭s ame‬‭line‬‭as‬‭Earth.‬ ‭Forces‬‭in‬‭Motion‬ ‭Contact‬‭or‬‭no‬‭c ontact‬ ‭-‬ ‭A‬‭c ontact‬‭force‬‭is‬‭when‬‭the‬‭force‬‭between‬‭the‬‭objects‬‭touching‬ ‭-‬ ‭A‬‭non-contact‬‭force‬‭is‬‭the‬‭force‬‭between‬‭objects‬‭that‬‭are‬‭not‬‭touching‬ ‭-‬ ‭G ravity‬‭is‬‭a‬‭non-contact‬‭force‬‭as‬‭well‬‭as‬‭m agnetic‬‭force‬‭and‬‭electrostatic‬ ‭-‬ ‭M agnets‬‭c an‬‭attract‬‭each‬‭other‬‭from‬‭a‬‭distance‬ ‭-‬ ‭If‬‭y ou‬‭rub‬‭a‬‭pen‬‭with‬‭a‬‭c loth‬‭y ou‬‭c an‬‭pick‬‭up‬‭s mall‬‭pieces‬‭of‬‭paper‬‭with‬‭an‬ ‭electrostatic‬‭force.‬ ‭Representing‬‭Forces‬ ‭-‬ ‭Arrows‬‭c an‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭represent‬‭the‬‭s ize‬‭and‬‭direction‬‭of‬‭a‬‭force‬ ‭M ore‬‭than‬‭one‬‭force‬ ‭-‬ ‭There‬‭is‬‭almost‬‭m ore‬‭than‬‭one‬‭force‬‭acting‬‭on‬‭an‬‭object‬ ‭-‬ ‭All‬‭forces‬‭that‬‭are‬‭acting‬‭on‬‭an‬‭object‬‭are‬‭then‬‭added‬‭up‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭the‬‭net‬‭force‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭direction‬‭of‬‭the‬‭force‬‭when‬‭c alculating‬‭a‬‭net‬‭force‬‭is‬‭essential‬ ‭G ravity:‬‭an‬‭attractive‬‭force‬ ‭-‬ ‭Without‬‭gravity,‬‭even‬‭the‬‭Earth's‬‭atmosphere‬‭would‬‭float‬‭off‬‭into‬‭s pace‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭force‬‭of‬‭gravity‬‭towards‬‭an‬‭object‬‭depends‬‭on‬‭its‬‭m ass‬ ‭-‬ ‭M ass‬‭is‬‭the‬‭quantity‬‭of‬‭m atter‬‭in‬‭an‬‭object‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭m ass‬‭of‬‭an‬‭object‬‭is‬‭the‬‭s ame‬‭wherever‬‭it‬‭is‬‭in‬‭the‬‭universe‬ ‭-‬ ‭M ass:‬‭Kg‬ ‭Weight‬ ‭-‬ ‭Weight‬‭is‬‭a‬‭m easure‬‭of‬‭the‬‭s ize‬‭of‬‭the‬‭force‬‭of‬‭gravity‬‭pulling‬‭an‬‭object‬ ‭-‬ ‭Because‬‭weight‬‭is‬‭a‬‭force‬‭it‬‭is‬‭m easured‬‭in‬‭Newton‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭force‬‭of‬‭gravity‬‭is‬‭about‬‭10‬‭newtons‬‭for‬‭every‬‭k ilogram‬ ‭-‬ ‭A‬‭person‬‭with‬‭a‬‭m ass‬‭of‬‭50kg‬‭on‬‭Earth‬‭will‬‭weigh‬‭500‬‭newtons‬‭on‬‭Earth‬ ‭M easuring‬‭weight‬‭and‬‭m ass‬ ‭-‬ ‭M ass‬‭c an‬‭be‬‭m easured‬‭with‬‭a‬‭balance‬ ‭-‬ ‭Weight‬‭c an‬‭be‬‭m easured‬‭with‬‭a‬‭s pring‬‭balance‬ ‭Free‬‭Fall‬ ‭-‬ ‭A‬‭free‬‭fall‬‭is‬‭when‬‭the‬‭only‬‭force‬‭acting‬‭is‬‭gravity‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭way‬‭objects‬‭fall‬‭depend‬‭on‬‭the‬‭net‬‭force‬ ‭Terminal‬‭Speed‬ ‭-‬ ‭Terminal‬‭s peed‬‭is‬‭the‬‭m aximum‬‭c onstant‬‭s peed‬‭reached‬‭by‬‭a‬‭falling‬‭body‬‭when‬‭the‬ ‭force‬‭of‬‭gravity‬‭pulling‬‭it‬‭down‬‭is‬‭balanced‬‭by‬‭the‬‭air‬‭resistance‬‭pushing‬‭against‬‭it‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭air‬‭resistance‬‭increases‬‭as‬‭the‬‭object‬‭m oves‬‭faster‬ ‭-‬ ‭For‬‭example,‬‭when‬‭c ycling‬‭or‬‭running‬‭quickly,‬‭y ou‬‭feel‬‭the‬‭air‬‭pushing‬‭against‬‭y our‬ ‭face‬‭even‬‭if‬‭there‬‭is‬‭no‬‭wind.‬‭When‬‭y ou‬‭s low‬‭down,‬‭y ou‬‭don’t‬‭feel‬‭the‬‭s ame‬‭push‬‭of‬ ‭air‬‭against‬‭y ou.‬ ‭-‬ ‭If‬‭the‬‭object‬‭travels‬‭fast‬‭enough,‬‭the‬‭air‬‭resistance‬‭c an‬‭become‬‭c an‬‭become‬‭as‬‭great‬ ‭as‬‭the‬‭force‬‭of‬‭gravity‬ ‭-‬ ‭O nce‬‭the‬‭air‬‭resistance‬‭balances‬‭the‬‭force‬‭of‬‭gravity,‬‭the‬‭net‬‭force‬‭on‬‭the‬‭object‬‭is‬ ‭z ero‬‭and‬‭it‬‭s tops‬‭s peeding‬‭up.‬‭It‬‭has‬‭reached‬‭its‬‭terminal‬‭s peed.‬‭It‬‭won’t‬‭fall‬‭any‬ ‭faster.‬ ‭M agnetic‬‭Attraction‬ ‭-‬ ‭M agnetic‬‭forces‬‭are‬‭non-contact‬‭forces‬ ‭-‬ ‭M agnets‬‭that‬‭retain‬‭their‬‭m agnetism‬‭when‬‭removed‬‭from‬‭another‬‭m agnet‬‭is‬‭c alled‬ ‭permanent‬‭m agnet‬ ‭-‬ ‭Permanent‬‭m agnets‬‭c ontain‬‭one‬‭or‬‭m ore‬‭of‬‭iron,‬‭nickel‬‭&‬‭c obalt‬ ‭-‬ ‭Temporary‬‭m agnets‬‭are‬‭m agnets‬‭that‬‭lose‬‭their‬‭m agnetism‬‭when‬‭removed‬‭form‬‭a‬ ‭permanent‬‭m agnet‬ ‭-‬ ‭An‬‭example‬‭is‬‭a‬‭paperclip,‬‭which‬‭becomes‬‭a‬‭temporary‬‭m agnet‬‭when‬‭placed‬‭near‬‭a‬ ‭permanent‬‭m agnet.‬ ‭M agnetic‬‭Poles‬ ‭-‬ ‭All‬‭m agnets‬‭have‬‭a‬‭north‬‭and‬‭s outh‬‭pole‬‭no‬‭m atter‬‭what‬ ‭-‬ ‭When‬‭a‬‭m agnet‬‭is‬‭c ut‬‭in‬‭half‬‭both‬‭s ides‬‭s till‬‭have‬‭a‬‭north‬‭and‬‭s outh‬‭pole‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭s ame‬‭poles‬‭will‬‭repel‬‭(ex.‬‭South‬‭and‬‭South)‬  -‭ ‬ ‭O pposite‬‭poles‬‭will‬‭attract‬‭(ex.‬‭South‬‭and‬‭North)‬ ‭M agnetic‬‭Fields‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭area‬‭where‬‭the‬‭m agnetic‬‭force‬‭acts‬‭is‬‭c alled‬‭the‬‭m agnetic‬‭field‬ ‭Earth’s‬‭M agnetic‬‭Field‬ ‭-‬ ‭Earth‬‭has‬‭its‬‭own‬‭m agnetic‬‭field‬ ‭-‬ ‭Scientists‬‭are‬‭not‬‭s ure‬‭why‬‭the‬‭Earth‬‭has‬‭a‬‭m agnetic‬‭field‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭s outh‬‭pole‬‭of‬‭a‬‭m agnet‬‭points‬‭to‬‭the‬‭m agnetic‬‭s outh‬‭pole‬‭of‬‭the‬‭earth‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭north‬‭pole‬‭of‬‭a‬‭c ompass‬‭usually‬‭points‬‭towards‬‭the‬‭m agnetic‬‭north‬‭pole‬ ‭-‬ ‭However‬‭if‬‭another‬‭m agnet‬‭is‬‭brought‬‭c lose‬‭to‬‭a‬‭c ompass,‬‭the‬‭north‬‭pole‬‭of‬‭the‬ ‭c ompass‬‭points‬‭towards‬‭the‬‭s outh‬‭pole‬‭of‬‭the‬‭other‬‭m agnet.‬ ‭Electromagnets‬ ‭-‬ ‭An‬‭electromagnet‬‭only‬‭becomes‬‭a‬‭m agnet‬‭when‬‭c onnected‬‭to‬‭an‬‭electric‬‭c urrent‬ ‭-‬ ‭It‬‭is‬‭often‬‭a‬‭c oil‬‭of‬‭wire‬‭wrapped‬‭around‬‭an‬‭iron‬‭c ore‬ ‭-‬ ‭When‬‭an‬‭electric‬‭c urrent‬‭is‬‭passed‬‭through‬‭the‬‭c oil,‬‭it‬‭c reates‬‭m agnetic‬‭fields‬‭and‬‭is‬ ‭m ade‬‭s tronger‬‭by‬‭the‬‭iron‬‭c ore.‬ ‭-‬ ‭When‬‭the‬‭c urrent‬‭is‬‭turned‬‭off,‬‭the‬‭iron‬‭is‬‭no‬‭longer‬‭m agnetised.‬‭It‬‭c an‬‭be‬‭v ery‬‭useful‬ ‭to‬‭be‬‭able‬‭to‬‭turn‬‭a‬‭m agnet‬‭on‬‭and‬‭off‬‭at‬‭will.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Electromagnets‬‭are‬‭used‬‭in‬‭doorbells,‬‭m etal‬‭detectors,‬‭s peakers,‬‭phones,‬‭electric‬ ‭m otors‬‭and‬‭generators.‬ ‭Safety‬‭on‬‭Four‬‭Wheels‬ ‭-‬ ‭In‬‭c ars‬‭and‬‭other‬‭m otor‬‭v ehicles,‬‭padded‬‭dashboards,‬‭c ollapsible‬‭s teering‬‭wheels,‬ ‭and‬‭airbags‬‭help‬‭reduce‬‭injuries‬‭by‬‭allowing‬‭the‬‭upper‬‭body‬‭to‬‭s low‬‭down‬‭m ore‬ ‭gradually‬‭when‬‭a‬‭c ar‬‭c rashes.‬ ‭-‬ ‭These‬‭features‬‭have‬‭reduced‬‭deaths‬‭and‬‭s evere‬‭injuries‬‭over‬‭the‬‭y ears.‬ ‭Bend‬‭y our‬‭k nees‬ ‭-‬ ‭In‬‭s ome‬‭s ports,‬‭y ou‬‭need‬‭to‬‭jump‬‭high‬ ‭-‬ ‭But‬‭of‬‭c ourse,‬‭what‬‭c omes‬‭up‬‭m ust‬‭c ome‬‭down‬ ‭-‬ ‭When‬‭y ou‬‭land‬‭on‬‭the‬‭ground‬‭y ou‬‭s top‬‭because‬‭the‬‭s urface‬‭provides‬‭a‬‭large‬‭upward‬ ‭force‬ ‭-‬ ‭If‬‭y ou‬‭land‬‭with‬‭y our‬‭feet‬‭s traight‬‭y ou‬‭s top‬‭v ery‬‭quickly‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭upward‬‭force‬‭on‬‭y our‬‭leg‬‭is‬‭large‬‭enough‬‭to‬‭c ause‬‭damage‬ ‭-‬ ‭However,‬‭if‬‭y ou‬‭bend‬‭y our‬‭k nees‬‭as‬‭y ou‬‭land,‬‭y ou‬‭s top‬‭m ore‬‭s lowly‬‭and‬‭the‬‭upward‬ ‭force‬‭is‬‭less.‬ ‭Ecosystem‬ ‭Ecology‬‭&‬‭Ecosystems‬ ‭-‬ ‭Ecology‬‭is‬‭the‬‭s tudy‬‭of‬‭ways‬‭in‬‭which‬‭living‬‭things‬‭interact‬‭with‬‭other‬‭organisms‬‭and‬ ‭with‬‭their‬‭environment‬ ‭-‬ ‭Ecosystems‬‭are‬‭m ade‬‭up‬‭of‬‭biotic‬‭factors‬‭(living‬‭things)‬‭and‬‭abiotic‬‭factors‬ ‭(non-living‬‭things)‬‭that‬‭interact‬‭with‬‭each‬‭other‬ ‭-‬ ‭Some‬‭biotic‬‭factors‬‭include:‬‭bacteria,‬‭worms,‬‭plants,‬‭s nakes‬ ‭-‬ ‭Some‬‭abiotic‬‭factors‬‭include:‬‭water,‬‭temperature,‬‭s alinity‬‭levels,‬‭light‬‭intensity,‬ ‭oxygen‬‭levels‬‭and‬‭PH‬ ‭Abiotic‬‭Factors‬  ‭-‬ ‭ biotic‬‭factors‬‭are‬‭non-living‬‭things‬‭that‬‭affect‬‭the‬‭c onditions‬‭in‬‭a‬‭particular‬ A ‭environment‬‭in‬‭an‬‭ecosystem‬ ‭-‬ ‭These‬‭c onditions‬‭c an‬‭affect‬‭which‬‭type‬‭of‬‭organisms‬‭c an‬‭s urvive‬ ‭-‬ ‭For‬‭example,‬‭the‬‭temperature‬‭of‬‭air‬‭and‬‭water‬‭c an‬‭affect‬‭animals‬‭and‬‭plants‬‭living‬‭in‬ ‭an‬‭ecosystem‬ ‭-‬ ‭Each‬‭s pecies‬‭has‬‭a‬‭tolerance‬‭range‬‭within‬‭this‬‭range‬‭the‬‭optimum‬‭range‬‭is‬‭in‬‭tehj‬ ‭range‬‭that‬‭the‬‭organism‬‭c an‬‭s urvive‬‭best‬ ‭Biotic‬‭Factors‬ ‭-‬ ‭Biotic‬‭factors‬‭are‬‭living‬‭things‬ ‭-‬ ‭An‬‭example‬‭c ould‬‭be‬‭the‬‭population‬‭of‬‭z ebras‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭biotic‬‭factors‬‭c an‬‭be‬‭grouped‬‭in‬‭a‬‭number‬‭of‬‭different‬‭ways‬ ‭-‬ ‭O rganisms‬‭of‬‭the‬‭s ame‬‭s pecies‬‭c an‬‭be‬‭grouped‬‭together‬‭to‬‭form‬‭populations‬‭and‬ ‭c ommunities‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭m embers‬‭of‬‭the‬‭c ommunity‬‭c an‬‭be‬‭identified‬‭as‬‭being‬‭either‬‭producers‬ ‭(autotrophs)‬‭or‬‭c onsumers‬‭(heterotrophs)‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭feeding‬‭relationships‬‭c an‬‭be‬‭s hown‬‭using‬‭flow‬‭c harts‬‭c alled‬‭food‬‭c hains‬‭and‬ ‭diagrams‬‭s howing‬‭interacting‬‭food‬‭c hains‬‭c alled‬‭food‬‭webs.‬ ‭Living‬‭levels‬‭of‬‭organisation‬‭within‬‭ecosystems‬ ‭-‬ ‭To‬‭explore‬‭these‬‭feeding‬‭relationships‬‭we‬‭need‬‭to‬‭be‬‭able‬‭to‬‭distinguish‬‭between‬ ‭s pecies,‬‭organisms‬‭and‬‭c ommunities‬ ‭-‬ ‭O rganisms‬‭are‬‭the‬‭s implest‬‭form‬‭of‬‭life,‬‭they‬‭c an‬‭be‬‭m ade‬‭up‬‭of‬‭a‬‭s ingle‬‭c ell‬ ‭(unicellular)or‬‭m any‬‭c ells‬‭(multicellular)‬ ‭-‬ ‭O rganisms‬‭of‬‭the‬‭s ame‬‭s pecies‬‭living‬‭in‬‭the‬‭s ame‬‭place‬‭at‬‭the‬‭s ame‬‭time‬‭are‬‭c alled‬ ‭populations‬ ‭-‬ ‭A‬‭group‬‭of‬‭populations‬‭that‬‭live‬‭and‬‭interact‬‭with‬‭each‬‭other‬‭in‬‭the‬‭s ame‬‭area‬‭are‬ ‭c alled‬‭c ommunities‬ ‭-‬ ‭An‬‭ecosystem‬‭is‬‭m ade‬‭up‬‭of‬‭a‬‭c ommunity‬‭and‬‭its‬‭physical‬‭environment‬‭(biotic‬‭and‬ ‭abiotic‬‭factors)‬ ‭Habitat‬ ‭-‬ ‭An‬‭ecosystem‬‭c ontains‬‭m any‬‭habitats‬ ‭-‬ ‭A‬‭habitat‬‭is‬‭a‬‭location‬‭in‬‭which‬‭the‬‭organism‬‭lives‬ ‭-‬ ‭An‬‭organism's‬‭habitat‬‭provides‬‭it‬‭with‬‭appropriate‬‭environmental‬‭c onditions‬‭and‬ ‭essential‬‭resources‬‭s uch‬‭as‬‭food,‬‭water,‬‭oxygen‬‭and‬‭s helter‬ ‭Producers‬ ‭-‬ ‭Producers‬‭are‬‭c rucial‬‭as‬‭they‬‭are‬‭the‬‭base‬‭of‬‭the‬‭food‬‭c hain‬ ‭-‬ ‭They‬‭are‬‭organisms‬‭that‬‭c an‬‭m ake‬‭their‬‭food‬‭from‬‭their‬‭non-living‬‭environment‬ ‭-‬ ‭Plants‬‭are‬‭producers‬‭as‬‭they‬‭use‬‭photosynthesis‬ ‭-‬ ‭Photosynthesis‬‭is‬‭the‬‭process‬‭in‬‭which‬‭c arbon‬‭dioxide,‬‭water‬‭and‬‭energy‬‭from‬‭the‬ ‭s un‬‭produce‬‭food‬‭in‬‭the‬‭form‬‭of‬‭s ugar‬ ‭-‬ ‭Producers‬‭s uch‬‭as‬‭plants‬‭and‬‭algae‬‭are‬‭green‬‭because‬‭they‬‭c ontain‬‭the‬‭green‬ ‭pigment‬‭c hlorophyll‬ ‭-‬ ‭Plants‬‭are‬‭responsible‬‭for‬‭c apturing‬‭light‬‭energy‬‭using‬‭c hlorophyll‬‭(or‬‭other‬ ‭light-capturing‬‭pigments).‬‭They‬‭then‬‭use‬‭this‬‭light‬‭energy‬‭to‬‭c onvert‬‭c arbon‬‭dioxide‬ ‭and‬‭water‬‭into‬‭glucose.‬ ‭Consumers‬ ‭-‬ ‭Consumers‬‭lack‬‭the‬‭c hlorophyll‬‭needed‬‭for‬‭photosynthesis‬ ‭-‬ ‭They‬‭are‬‭unable‬‭to‬‭m ake‬‭their‬‭food‬‭and‬‭are‬‭c alled‬‭heterotrophs‬  ‭-‬ ‭ onsumers‬‭are‬‭divided‬‭into‬‭different‬‭types‬‭based‬‭on‬‭their‬‭food‬‭s ource‬‭and‬‭how‬‭they‬ C ‭obtain‬‭it.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Herbivores‬‭eat‬‭plants‬‭and‬‭are‬‭often‬‭described‬‭as‬‭primary‬‭c onsumers‬‭because‬‭they‬ ‭are‬‭the‬‭first‬‭c onsumers‬‭in‬‭a‬‭food‬‭c hain;‬‭for‬‭example,‬‭k oalas.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Carnivores‬‭eat‬‭other‬‭animals‬‭and‬‭are‬‭described‬‭as‬‭s econdary‬‭or‬‭tertiary‬‭c onsumers‬ ‭in‬‭food‬‭c hains‬‭or‬‭webs;‬‭for‬‭example,‬‭Tasmanian‬‭devils‬ ‭-‬ ‭O mnivores‬‭eat‬‭both‬‭plants‬‭and‬‭animals;‬‭for‬‭example,‬‭humans.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Detritivores‬‭feed‬‭on‬‭the‬‭tissue‬‭of‬‭dead‬‭or‬‭decaying‬‭organisms;‬‭for‬‭example,‬‭dung‬ ‭beetles.‬ ‭Decomposers‬ ‭-‬ ‭Decomposers‬‭c onvert‬‭organic‬‭m atter‬‭into‬‭s imple‬‭inorganic‬‭m atter‬ ‭-‬ ‭Fungi‬‭and‬‭Bacteria‬‭are‬‭examples‬‭of‬‭decomposers‬ ‭-‬ ‭Decomposers‬‭are‬ ‭s mall‬‭organisms‬‭that‬‭break‬‭down‬‭dead‬‭and‬‭decaying‬‭m atte‬ ‭Food‬‭Chains‬ ‭-‬ ‭A‬‭food‬‭c hain‬‭is‬‭a‬‭c hain‬‭that‬‭s tarts‬‭with‬‭producers‬‭and‬‭ends‬‭with‬‭decomposers‬ ‭-‬ ‭It‬‭represents‬‭who‬‭eats‬‭who‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭arrow‬‭of‬‭a‬‭food‬‭c hain‬‭indicates‬‭‘is‬‭eaten‬‭by’‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭arrow‬‭points‬‭to‬‭the‬‭animal‬‭that‬‭will‬‭be‬‭eating‬‭it‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭arrow‬‭between‬‭the‬‭grasshopper‬‭and‬‭m agpie‬‭points‬‭to‬‭the‬‭m agpie,‬‭because‬‭it‬‭is‬ ‭the‬‭m agpie‬‭that‬‭eats‬‭the‬‭grasshopper‬‭and‬‭gains‬‭energy‬‭from‬‭it.‬ -‭ ‬ ‭ rass‬‭is‬‭the‬‭producer‬ g ‭-‬ ‭the‬‭c onsumer‬‭that‬‭eats‬‭the‬‭producer‬‭is‬‭c alled‬‭a‬‭primary‬‭c onsumer‬‭(for‬ ‭example,‬‭the‬‭grasshopper)‬ ‭-‬ ‭the‬‭c onsumer‬‭that‬‭eats‬‭a‬‭primary‬‭c onsumer‬‭is‬‭c alled‬‭a‬‭s econdary‬‭c onsumer‬ ‭(for‬‭example,‬‭the‬‭frog)‬ ‭-‬ ‭the‬‭c onsumer‬‭that‬‭eats‬‭the‬‭s econdary‬‭c onsumer‬‭is‬‭a‬‭tertiary‬‭c onsumer‬‭(for‬ ‭example,‬‭the‬‭s nake).‬ ‭Food‬‭Webs‬ ‭-‬ ‭Food‬‭webs‬‭are‬‭interconnecting‬‭or‬‭linked‬‭food‬‭c hains‬‭that‬‭m ake‬‭up‬‭food‬‭webs‬ ‭-‬ ‭grass‬‭blades‬‭are‬‭producers‬ ‭-‬ ‭the‬‭c aterpillar,‬‭grasshopper‬‭and‬‭wombat‬‭are‬‭all‬‭primary‬‭(first-order)‬‭c onsumers‬ ‭-‬ ‭the‬‭frog‬‭and‬‭m agpie‬‭are‬‭s econdary‬‭(second-order)‬‭c onsumers‬ ‭-‬ ‭the‬‭s nake‬‭is‬‭a‬‭tertiary‬‭(third-order)‬‭c onsumer‬ ‭-‬ ‭the‬‭k ookaburra‬‭is‬‭a‬‭quaternary‬‭(fourth-order)‬‭c onsumer.‬  ‭-‬ ‭ epending‬‭on‬‭the‬‭feeding‬‭relationships‬‭within‬‭a‬‭food‬‭web,‬‭organisms‬‭c an‬‭hold‬ D ‭m ore‬‭than‬‭one‬‭position.‬ ‭-‬ ‭For‬‭example,‬‭if‬‭the‬‭k ookaburra‬‭ate‬‭the‬‭c aterpillar,‬‭it‬‭c ould‬‭also‬‭be‬‭c onsidered‬ ‭as‬‭a‬‭s econdary‬‭c onsumer.‬ ‭-‬ ‭If‬‭one‬‭of‬‭the‬‭organisms‬‭in‬‭a‬‭food‬‭web‬‭is‬‭removed,‬‭or‬‭a‬‭new‬‭organism‬‭is‬ ‭introduced,‬‭other‬‭organisms‬‭in‬‭the‬‭food‬‭web‬‭m ay‬‭be‬‭affected.‬ ‭Trophic‬‭Levels‬ ‭-‬ ‭Trophic‬‭levels‬‭are‬‭feeding‬‭levels‬‭within‬‭a‬‭food‬‭c hain‬ ‭-‬ ‭A‬‭food‬‭c hain‬‭c an‬‭be‬‭defined‬‭as‬‭a‬‭pathway‬‭along‬‭which‬‭food‬‭is‬‭transferred‬‭from‬ ‭producers‬‭to‬‭c onsumers.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Producers‬‭and‬‭c onsumers‬‭c an‬‭be‬‭arranged‬‭into‬‭different‬‭feeding‬‭levels‬‭c alled‬‭trophic‬ ‭levels.‬ ‭-‬ ‭For‬‭example,‬‭producers‬‭m ake‬‭up‬‭the‬‭first‬‭trophic‬‭level‬‭and‬‭the‬‭c onsumers‬ ‭(herbivores)‬‭that‬‭eat‬‭them‬‭m ake‬‭up‬‭the‬‭s econd‬‭trophic‬‭level.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Consumers‬‭eating‬‭these‬‭herbivores‬‭m ake‬‭up‬‭the‬‭third‬‭trophic‬‭level‬‭and‬‭c onsumers‬ ‭eating‬‭these‬‭c onsumers‬‭m ake‬‭up‬‭the‬‭fourth‬‭trophic‬‭level.‬ -‭ ‬ ‭-‬ ‭O rganisms‬‭c an‬‭occupy‬‭m ore‬‭than‬‭one‬‭trophic‬‭level‬ ‭-‬ ‭O ne‬‭important‬‭factor‬‭that‬‭limits‬‭the‬‭number‬‭of‬‭trophic‬‭levels‬‭in‬‭a‬‭food‬‭c hain‬‭is‬‭energy.‬ ‭What‬‭are‬‭Ecological‬‭Pyramids‬ ‭-‬ ‭An‬‭ecological‬‭pyramid‬‭is‬‭a‬‭diagrammatic‬‭representation‬‭of‬‭the‬‭relationships‬‭between‬ ‭the‬‭different‬‭living‬‭organisms‬‭at‬‭different‬‭trophic‬‭levels.‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭three‬‭m ain‬‭types‬‭of‬‭ecological‬‭pyramids‬‭are:‬  ‭-‬ ‭ yramids‬‭of‬‭number,‬‭s howing‬‭the‬‭number‬‭of‬‭organisms‬‭and‬‭the‬‭relationships‬ p ‭between‬‭them‬‭at‬‭each‬‭trophic‬‭level‬ -‭ ‬ ‭pyramids‬‭of‬‭energy,‬‭s howing‬‭the‬‭flow‬‭of‬‭energy‬‭from‬‭one‬‭trophic‬‭level‬‭to‬‭another‬ ‭-‬ ‭pyramids‬‭of‬‭biomass,‬‭s howing‬‭the‬‭biomass‬‭at‬‭different‬‭trophic‬‭levels.‬ ‭Pyramid‬‭of‬‭Number‬ ‭-‬ ‭Is‬‭an‬‭ecological‬‭pyramid‬‭s howing‬‭the‬‭number‬‭of‬‭each‬‭organism‬‭at‬‭each‬‭trophic‬‭level‬ ‭Pyramid‬‭of‬‭Energy‬ ‭-‬ ‭Represents‬‭the‬‭total‬‭energy‬‭available‬‭at‬‭each‬‭trophic‬‭level‬‭of‬‭the‬‭food‬‭c hain‬ ‭-‬ ‭As‬‭only‬‭about‬‭10‬‭per‬‭c ent‬‭of‬‭the‬‭c hemical‬‭energy‬‭is‬‭passed‬‭from‬‭one‬‭trophic‬‭level‬‭to‬ ‭the‬‭next‬‭and‬‭the‬‭remaining‬‭90‬‭per‬‭c ent‬‭is‬‭lost‬‭as‬‭heat,‬‭the‬‭pyramid‬‭of‬‭energy‬‭is‬ ‭always‬‭upright.‬ ‭Pyramid‬‭of‬‭Biomass‬ ‭-‬ ‭Represents‬‭the‬‭total‬‭m ass‬‭of‬‭living‬‭organisms‬‭at‬‭each‬‭trophic‬‭level‬ ‭-‬ ‭Biomass‬‭is‬‭defined‬‭as‬‭the‬‭total‬‭m ass‬‭of‬‭all‬‭living‬‭m atter‬‭in‬‭a‬‭particular‬‭trophic‬‭level‬‭at‬ ‭any‬‭given‬‭point‬‭in‬‭time.‬ ‭-‬ ‭There‬‭are‬‭two‬‭m ain‬‭types‬‭of‬‭biomass‬‭pyramids:‬ ‭-‬ ‭inverted‬‭pyramids‬‭of‬‭biomass‬ ‭-‬ ‭upright‬‭pyramids‬‭of‬‭biomass.‬ ‭Upright‬‭pyramid‬ ‭Upright‬‭Pyramid‬ ‭Seasonal‬‭Changes‬ ‭-‬ ‭Seasonal‬‭c hanges‬‭c an‬‭affect‬‭the‬‭timing‬‭of‬‭m any‬‭life-cycle‬‭events,‬‭s uch‬‭as‬‭when‬ ‭flowers‬‭bloom‬‭or‬‭when‬‭pollinators‬‭emerge.‬ ‭-‬ ‭They‬‭also‬‭affect‬‭the‬‭type‬‭and‬‭amount‬‭of‬‭food‬‭available.‬  -‭ ‬ ‭ lants‬‭that‬‭produce‬‭flowers‬‭are‬‭c alled‬‭angiosperms.‬ P ‭-‬ ‭These‬‭flowering‬‭plants‬‭have‬‭their‬‭m ale‬‭and‬‭female‬‭reproductive‬‭s tructures‬‭located‬‭in‬ ‭their‬‭flowers.‬‭For‬‭a‬‭s eed‬‭to‬‭be‬‭produced,‬‭pollination‬‭m ust‬‭occur.‬ ‭Pollination-‬‭Biotic‬‭and‬‭Abiotic‬‭interactions‬ ‭-‬ ‭Both‬‭biotic‬‭and‬‭abiotic‬‭factors‬‭c an‬‭c ontribute‬‭to‬‭s uccessful‬‭pollination.‬ ‭-‬ ‭While‬‭s ome‬‭plants‬‭m ay‬‭be‬‭able‬‭to‬‭pollinate‬‭themselves,‬‭m any‬‭plants‬‭rely‬‭on‬‭either‬ ‭animals‬‭(such‬‭as‬‭bees,‬‭butterflies‬‭and‬‭birds)‬‭or‬‭the‬‭wind‬‭to‬‭transport‬‭their‬‭pollen‬‭from‬ ‭one‬‭plant‬‭to‬‭the‬‭s tigma‬‭of‬‭another‬‭(cross-pollination).‬ ‭Introduced‬‭Species‬ ‭-‬ ‭An‬‭introduced‬‭s pecies‬‭has‬‭been‬‭released‬‭into‬‭an‬‭ecosystem‬‭in‬‭which‬‭it‬‭does‬‭not‬ ‭occur‬‭naturally.‬ ‭-‬ ‭The‬‭food‬‭webs‬‭in‬‭ecosystems‬‭are‬‭v ery‬‭delicate‬‭and‬‭c an‬‭be‬‭easily‬‭unbalanced,‬ ‭especially‬‭when‬‭new‬‭organisms‬‭are‬‭introduced.‬ ‭-‬ ‭These‬‭introduced‬‭organisms‬‭c ompete‬‭with‬‭other‬‭animals‬‭for‬‭food,‬‭provide‬‭predators‬ ‭with‬‭a‬‭new‬‭s ource‬‭of‬‭prey,‬‭or‬‭m ay‬‭act‬‭as‬‭predators‬‭themselves.‬ ‭Saving‬‭Endangered‬‭Species‬ ‭-‬ ‭Why‬‭s hould‬‭we‬‭be‬‭s o‬‭c oncerned‬‭about‬‭endangered‬‭s pecies?‬‭After‬‭all,‬‭there‬‭are‬ ‭m any‬‭plants‬‭and‬‭animals‬‭on‬‭Earth‬‭and‬‭it‬‭m ay‬‭become‬‭overcrowded‬‭in‬‭the‬‭future.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Some‬‭of‬‭the‬‭reasons‬‭to‬‭be‬‭c oncerned‬‭about‬‭endangered‬‭s pecies‬‭are‬‭that:‬ ‭-‬ ‭their‬‭disappearance‬‭affects‬‭all‬‭other‬‭s pecies‬‭in‬‭the‬‭food‬‭web‬ ‭-‬ ‭all‬‭s pecies‬‭have‬‭a‬‭right‬‭to‬‭live‬‭on‬‭and‬‭s hare‬‭Earth‬ ‭-‬ ‭they‬‭m ay‬‭be‬‭useful‬‭in‬‭the‬‭future‬‭for‬‭food,‬‭m edicines,‬‭etc.‬ ‭-‬ ‭future‬‭generations‬‭s hould‬‭have‬‭the‬‭s ame‬‭c hance‬‭to‬‭s ee‬‭a‬‭diverse‬‭world.‬ ‭-‬ ‭Some‬‭of‬‭the‬‭s olutions‬‭put‬‭into‬‭practice‬‭to‬‭reduce‬‭the‬‭threat‬‭to‬‭endangered‬‭s pecies‬ ‭include:‬ ‭-‬ ‭declaring‬‭areas‬‭as‬‭national‬‭parks,‬‭where‬‭plants‬‭and‬‭animals‬‭are‬‭protected‬ ‭-‬ ‭s etting‬‭up‬‭fauna‬‭and‬‭flora‬‭reserves,‬‭wetlands‬‭and‬‭other‬‭s pecialised‬‭habitats‬ ‭-‬ ‭placing‬‭quotas‬‭(limits)‬‭on‬‭hunting‬‭and‬‭exports‬ ‭-‬ ‭c ulling‬‭(reducing‬‭numbers)‬‭of‬‭overpopulated‬‭s pecies,‬‭s uch‬‭as‬‭western‬‭grey‬ ‭k angaroos‬‭in‬‭s ome‬‭national‬‭parks,‬‭to‬‭allow‬‭native‬‭plants‬‭to‬‭s urvive.‬