Science Exam Reviewer PDF

PAGE 6-30 Three Domains Of Science Science as a Way of Knowing (Scientific Inquiry) demands evidence, explains and predicts, identifies and avoids bias. Leads to a body of knowledge that includes scientific facts, concepts, theories, and laws Science as a Way of Doing (Scientific Ente...

PAGE 6-30 Three Domains Of Science Science as a Way of Knowing (Scientific Inquiry) demands evidence, explains and predicts, identifies and avoids bias. Leads to a body of knowledge that includes scientific facts, concepts, theories, and laws Science as a Way of Doing (Scientific Enterprise) Organized into content discipline -Science can be thought of as a collection of the different scientific fields or content disciplines Methods of Science -No single method for all scientists to follow -Can be done in any sequence -May involve repeating the same steps to account for new information and ideas Deploys a wide variety of approaches to generate scientific knowledge -Includes: Observation, inference, experimentation, and chance discovery Science as a Way of Looking (Scientific Worldview) Preliminary(all scientific knowledge is vulnerable to change), understandable world(Science operates on the belief that the universe can be understood through careful and systematic observation and study, including the study of human beings) and limitations of science. Seeks to describe the nature of scientific enterprise as an individual and social dimension and focuses on the scientists who are doing the scientific work and generating knowledge Scientific skills and attitudes: Intellectual honesty - Reporting the truth, even if it conflicts with your beliefs. Objectivity - Being free of bias. Open-mindedness - Willingness to change opinions when confronted with better ideas. Critical Thinking - Reasonable judgment. Logical and Systematic Thinking - Processing information and discerning truth. Analysis - Collecting and researching information. Curiosity - Willingness to learn, general wonder. Patience and perseverance - Being focused and persistent in determining truth. 3. Measurements Units of Measurement: The International System (SI) uses standard units like meters (m), kilograms (kg), seconds (s), etc.  Accuracy vs. Precision: Accuracy: Closeness to the true value. Precision: Consistency of repeated measurements. Significant Figures: The digits in a measurement that are known with certainty, plus one estimated digit. Tools: Instruments like rulers, thermometers, balances, and graduated cylinders are used for measurement. 4. Biomolecules Carbohydrates: Organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Main source of energy (e.g., glucose, starch). Monosaccharides Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and consist of a single sugar unit. They are the building blocks for more complex carbohydrates. Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆): A six-carbon sugar (hexose) that is the primary energy source for cells. Fructose (C₆H₁₂O₆): A sugar found in fruits, honey, and some vegetables; it is sweeter than glucose. Galactose (C₆H₁₂O₆): Found in milk and dairy products; a component of lactose. Disaccharides Disaccharides are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides. Sucrose (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁): Composed of glucose and fructose, commonly known as table sugar. Lactose (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁): Composed of glucose and galactose, found in milk. Maltose (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁): Composed of two glucose units; found in malt and during starch digestion. Polysaccharides Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. Starch: A storage form of glucose in plants, found in foods like potatoes and rice.  Glycogen: A storage form of glucose in animals, primarily stored in the liver and muscles. Cellulose: A structural polysaccharide found in plant cell walls, made of β-glucose. It provides rigidity to plant cells and is indigestible by humans. Proteins: Made of amino acids. Serve as enzymes, structural components, and antibodies (e.g., hemoglobin, enzymes). Proteins Proteins are composed of amino acids and perform a variety of functions in the body. Enzymes: Catalyze biochemical reactions (e.g., amylase, lactase). Structural Proteins: Provide support and shape (e.g., collagen, keratin). Transport Proteins: Carry molecules (e.g., hemoglobin, myoglobin). Antibodies: Help fight infections (e.g., immunoglobulins). Hormones: Regulate body processes (e.g., insulin, growth hormone). Contractile Proteins: Involved in muscle contraction (e.g., actin, myosin). Lipids: Hydrophobic molecules including fats, oils, and phospholipids. Important for energy storage, cell membranes, and signaling (e.g., triglycerides, cholesterol). Lipids Triglycerides Triglycerides are composed of one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids. They are the main form of stored energy in animals and plants. Saturated Fatty Acids: Have no double bonds between carbon atoms. Solid at room temperature (e.g., butter, lard). Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. Liquid at room temperature (e.g., olive oil, fish oil). Trans Fats: Artificially created fats where hydrogen atoms are added to unsaturated fats to make them more solid. Found in processed foods and linked to health risks. 5. Atwater System A method to estimate the caloric value of food.  Carbohydrates: 4 kcal per gram Proteins: 4 kcal per gram Lipids: 9 kcal per gram Alcohol: 7 kcal per gram Use GRESA Used to calculate the energy content in foods and diets. 6. Data Tables and Graphs Data Tables: Organize information in rows and columns, allowing for easier comparison. Pie Graph: Used to show parts of a whole; each slice represents a proportion of the total. Bar Graph: Displays data with rectangular bars. Useful for comparing quantities across categories. Line Graph: Used to show changes over time or continuous data. Data points are connected by a line. Key Features: Title: Provides context for the graph. Axis Labels: Indicate what each axis represents. Legend: Explains different data series in the graph. Scale: Ensures consistent spacing and accurate representation. 3. Measurements Basic Concepts in Measurement: Units of Measurement: The SI (International System of Units) is the standard system used worldwide for scientific measurements. Common units include: Length: meter (m) Mass: kilogram (kg) Time: second (s)  Temperature: kelvin (K) or Celsius (°C) Electric current: ampere (A) Amount of substance: mole (mol) Accuracy vs. Precision: Accuracy refers to how close a measured value is to the true value or accepted reference value. Precision refers to how consistently you can obtain the same result when repeating the measurement. Example: A dartboard analogy: if you hit near the bullseye (true value), your measurements are accurate; if you hit the same spot repeatedly but far from the bullseye, your measurements are precise but not accurate. Significant Figures: These are digits in a measurement that are known with certainty, plus one estimated digit. They reflect the precision of a measurement. For example: The number 123.45 has five significant figures. 0.00456 has three significant figures. Tools: Instruments such as rulers, thermometers, balance scales, and graduated cylinders help provide accurate and precise measurements of physical quantities. 4. Biomolecules Carbohydrates: Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are always in a ratio of 1 carbon atom for every 2 hydrogen and 1 oxygen atom. They include: Monosaccharides (simple sugars like glucose, fructose). Disaccharides (two monosaccharides joined together, e.g., sucrose, lactose). Polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates like starch, glycogen, cellulose). Functions: Carbohydrates provide energy, store energy (glycogen), and form structural components (cellulose in plant cell walls). Proteins: Made up of amino acids, which are linked by peptide bonds to form polypeptides. There are 20 different amino acids, and the sequence and arrangement of these amino acids determine the protein's structure and function. All proteins have h2c, cooh, and one lone hydrogen atom, but the difference is found in the R group, making all amino acids different (also the ratio is 1c : 2h :