Saturday-References-Chap-1-3-Review PDF Engineering Management

ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT BY - (Page 3) Engineers’ contributions such as ROBERTO MEDINA tools, equipment, and projects indicate that engineers have become an indispensable Chapter 1: THE FIELD OF ENGINEE...

ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT BY - (Page 3) Engineers’ contributions such as ROBERTO MEDINA tools, equipment, and projects indicate that engineers have become an indispensable Chapter 1: THE FIELD OF ENGINEERING segment of the world's professions. MANAGEMENT 2. What are expected of engineers in SUMMARY general? Engineers are known for their great - (Page 2) Engineers are expected to contributions to the development of the perform a variety of tasks depending on world's civilization. There are many areas their specialization and job level. It is where their presence is necessary like important to the engineer that he knows research, design and development, testing, what is expected of him so that he may be manufacturing, construction, sales, able to perform his job effectively and consulting, government, teaching, and efficiently. management. 3. In what current concerns are Engineers may be found contributing their engineering outputs needed? share in the various levels of organization. - (Page 3) 1. the production of more food for Engineering activities need to be managed a fast growing world population; and engineers are sometimes placed in 2. the elimination of air and water pollution; positions where they have to learn 3. solid waste disposal and materials management skills. recycling, 4. the reduction of noise in various forms; Management is concerned with planning, 5. supplying the increasing demand for organizing, leading, and controlling an energy, organization's resources to achieve its 6. supplying the increasing demand for mission and objectives. mobility, 7. preventing and solving crimes; and There are certain qualifications required of 8. meeting the increasing demand for the engineer manager. communi- cation facilities. One may become a successful engineer 4. In what areas are engineers currently manager if the preconditions of ability, involved? motivation to manage, and opportunity to manage are met. - (Page 15) There are many areas where their presence is necessary like research, QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND design and development, testing, DISCUSSION manufacturing, construction, sales, consulting, government, teaching, and 1. Why are engineers considered an management. important segment of the society? 5. How may organizations be classified according to the engineering jobs - (Page 12) Engineer manager must have performed? the following qualifications: 1. a bachelor's degree in engineering from a - (Page 3) From the viewpoint of the repu- table school; In some cases, a engineer, organizations may be classified master's degree in engineering or business according to the degree of engineering jobs management is required; performed: 1. Level One those with minimal 2. a few years experience in a pure engineering jobs like retailing firms. engineering job; 2. Level Two those with a moderate degree 3. training in supervision; of engineering jobs like transportation 4. special training in engineering companies. management. 3. Level Three those with a high degree of engineering jobs like construction firms. 10. How may one become a successful engineer manager? 6. Which organization level requires the highest management skills for engineer - (Page 16) One may become a successful managers? engineer manager if the preconditions of ability, motivation to manage, and - (Page 6) Level three firms provide the opportunity to manage are met. biggest opportunity for an engineer to become the president or general manager. Chapter 2: DECISION-MAKING In this case, the engineer manager cannot function effectively without adequate SUMMARY management skills. Decision-making is a very important function 7. What is engineering management? of the engineer manager. His organization will rise or fall depending on the outcomes - (Page 6) Engineering management refers of his decisions. It is, therefore, necessary to the activity combining "technical for the engineer manager to develop some knowledge with the ability to organize and skills in decision-making. coordinate worker power, materials, machinery, and money.” The process of identifying and choosing alternative courses of action in a manner 8. How may one define management? appropriate to the demands of the situation is called decision-making. It is done at - (Page 12) Management may be defined as various management levels and functions. the "creative problem solving-process of planning, organizing, leading, and The decision-making process consists of controlling an organization's resources to various steps, namely: diagnose problem, achieve its mission and objectives.” analyze environment, articulate problem or opportunity, develop viable alter- natives, 9. What qualifications must an engineer evaluate alternatives, make a choice, manager have? implement decision, and evaluate and adapt 4. What are the components of the decision results. environment from the point of view of the decision-maker? What do they There are two approaches in solving consist of? problems, namely: qualitative evaluation and quantitative evaluation. Qualitative - (Page 25) The environment consists of evaluation is used for solving fairly sim- ple two major concerns: internal and external. problems, while quantitative evaluation is The internal environment refers to applied to complex ones. organizational activities within a firm that surrounds decision-making.", while the QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND external environment refers to variables that DISCUSSION are outside the organization and not typically within the short-run control of top 1. Can the engineer manager avoid management. making management decision? Why or why not? 5. How may one develop viable alternatives in problem solving? - (Page 21) No, because decision-making is a responsibility of the engineer manager. - (Page 25) Oftentimes, problems may be solved by any of the solutions offered. The 2. When a problem becomes apparent best among the alternative solutions must and the engineer manager chooses to be considered by management. This is ignore it, is he making a decision? made possible by using a procedure with Explain your answer. the following steps: 1. Prepare a list of alternative solutions. - (Page 21) Yes, and he made the wrong 2. Determine the viability of each solutions. decision. Because the wise engineer 3. Revise the list by striking out those which manager will correct them as soon as they are not viable. are identified. 6. How may alternative solutions be 3. Why is proper diagnosis of the evaluated? problem important? - (Page 28) The alternatives will be - (Page 23) Having a proper diagnosis of evaluated will depend on the nature of the the problem is important to succeed in the problem, the objectives of the firm, and the subsequent steps. If a manager wants to nature of alternatives presented. Souder make an intelligent decision, his first move suggests that "each alternative must be must be to identify the problem. If the analyzed and evaluated in terms of its manager fails in this aspect, it is almost value, cost, and risk characteristics.” impossible to succeed in the subsequent steps. An expert once said "identification of 7. Why is it important for those who will the problem is tantamount to having the be involved in implementation to problem half-solved." understand and accept the solution to the problem?  - (Page 37) The purpose of Bayesian - (Page 30) After a decision has been made, analysis is to revise and update the initial implementation follows. This is necessary, assessments of the event probabilities or decision-making will be an exercise in generated by the alternative solutions. This futility. Implementation refers to carrying out is achieved by the use of additional the decision so that the objectives sought information. will be achieved. To make implementation effective, a plan must be devised. At this Chapter 3: PLANNING TECHNICAL stage, the resources must be made avail- ACTIVITIES able so that the decision may be properly implemented. Those who will be involved in SUMMARY implementation, accord- ing to Aldag and Stearns, must understand and accept the Technical activities, like other activities, solution." require effective planning, i.e., if objectives and goals are to be realized. 8. What are the approaches in solving problems? A plan is a methodological way of achieving results. - (Page 38) There are two approaches in solving problems, namely: qualitative Planning is undertaken at various evaluation and quantitative evaluation. management levels. Qualitative evaluation is used for solving fairly sim- ple problems, while quantitative Various steps are required in the planning evaluation is applied to complex ones. process depending on the management level. 9. What quantitative techniques are useful in decision- making? Plans may be classified in terms of functional areas, time horizon, and - (Page 33) The types of quantitative frequency of use. techniques which may be useful in decision-making are as follows: Plans consist of various parts that the 1. inventory models engineer manager must be familiar with. 2. queuing theory 3. network models Plans can be made effective by recognizing 4. forecasting the planning barriers and making use of 5. regression analysis aids to planning. 6. simulation 7. linear programming QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND 8. sampling theory DISCUSSION 9. statistical decision theory 1. Why is planning an important activity 10. What is the purpose of Bayesian for engineer managers? analysis? - (Page 43) To minimize mistakes in decision-making, planning is undertaken. - (Page 52) Plans may be classified in terms of functional areas, time horizon, and 2. How may "planning" be defined? frequency of use. - (Page 44) Various experts define planning Functional Area Plans in various ways, all of which are designed to 1. Marketing plan suit specific purposes. For our purpose, it 2. Production plan will suffice to define planning as selecting 3. Financial plan the best course of action so that the desired 4. Human resource management plan result may be achieved. It must be stressed that the desired result takes first priority and Plans With Time Horizon the course of action chosen is the means to 1. Short-range plans realize the goal. 2. Long-range plans 3. What planning activities are Plans According to Frequency of Use undertaken at various management levels? 1. standing plans: 1. Policies - (Page 35) Planning activities undertaken 2. Procedures at various levels are as follows: 3. Rules 1. Top management level strategic planning 2. Middle management level intermediate 2. single-use plans: planning 1. budgets 3. Lower management level. operational 2. programs, and planning. 3. projects. 4. What are the steps in the planning 6. What is a production plan? What are process? its components? - (Page 48) The process of planning - (Page 52) Production plan is a written consists of various steps depending on the document that states the quantity of output management level that performs the a company must produce in broad terms planning task. Generally, however, planning and by product family. involves the following: 1. setting organizational, divisional, or unit (Page 56) The production plan must contain goals the following: 2. developing strategies or tactics to reach 1. the amount of capacity the company must those goals have 3. determining resources needed and 2. how many employees are required 4. setting standards. 3. how much material must be purchased 5. What are the types of plans? How may 7. What is a budget? they be classified? - (Page 54) A budget, according to Weston MANAGEMENT BY ROBBINS and Brigham, is "a plan which sets forth the projected expenditure for a certain activity Chapter 1: Management and and explains where the required funds will Organizations come from. Explain why managers are important to 8. What is meant by "company mission"? organizations. - (Page 59) Company of corporate mission Managers are important to organizations for refers to the "strategic statement that three reasons. First, organizations need identifies why an organization exists, its their managerial skills and abilities in philosophy of management, and its purpose uncertain, complex, and chaotic times. as distinguished from other similar Second, managers are critical to getting organizations in terms of products, services, things done in organizations. Finally, and marketa," managers contribute to employee productivity and loyalty; the way employees 9. What are the barriers to planning? are managed can affect the organization's financial performance; and managerial - (Page 60) The planning barriers, according ability has been shown to be important in to Plunkett and Attner, are as follows: creating organizational value. 1. manager's inability to plan 2. improper planning process Tell who managers are and where they 3. lack of commitment to the planning work. process 4. improper information Managers coordinate and oversee the work 5. focusing on the present at the expense of of other people so that organizational goals the future can be accomplished. Nonmanagerial 6. too much reliance on the planning employees work directly on a job or task department and have no one reporting to them. In 7. concentrating on only the controllable traditionally structured organizations, variables managers can be first line, middle, or top. In other more loosely configured 10. What may be used as aids in organizations, the managers may not be as planning? readily identifiable, although someone must fulfill that role. - (Page 60) Among the aids to planning that may be used are: Managers work in an organization, which is 1 Gather as much information as possible a deliberate arrangement of people to 2. Develop multiple sources of information accomplish some specific purpose. 3. Involve others in the planning process Organizations have three characteristics: a distinctive purpose, composed of people, and a deliberate structure. Many of today’s organizations are structured to be more open, flexible, and responsive to changes.  Human skills are equally important for all Describe the functions, roles, and skills managers. Some other managerial skills of managers. also identified include managing human capital, inspiring commitment, managing Broadly speaking, management is what change, using purposeful networking, and managers do and management involves so forth. coordinating and overseeing the efficient and effective completion of others’ work Describe the factors that are reshaping activities. Efficiency means doing things and redefining the manager’s job. right; effectiveness means doing the right things. The four functions of management The changes impacting managers’ jobs include planning (defining goals, include global economic and political establishing strategies, and developing uncertainties, changing workplaces, ethical plans), organizing (arranging and structuring issues, security threats, and changing work), leading (working with and through technology. Managers must be concerned people), and controlling (monitoring, with customer service because employee comparing, and correcting work attitudes and behaviors play a big role in performance). customer satisfaction. Managers must also be concerned with innovation because it is Mintzberg’s managerial roles include important for organizations to be interpersonal, which involve people and competitive. And finally, managers must be other ceremonial/symbolic duties concerned with sustainability as business (figurehead, leader, and liaison); goals are developed. informational, which involve collecting, receiving, and disseminating information Explain the value of studying (monitor, disseminator, and spokesperson); management. and decisional, which involve making choices (entrepreneur, disturbance handler, It’s important to study management for three resource allocator, and negotiator). reasons: (1) the universality of Mintzberg’s newest description of what management, which refers to the fact that managers do proposes that managing is managers are needed in all types and sizes about influencing action, which managers of organizations, at all organizational levels do in three ways: by managing actions and work areas, and in all global locations; directly, by managing people who take (2) the reality of work—that is, you will either action, and by managing information that manage or be managed; and (3) the impels people to take action. awareness of the significant rewards (such as, creating work environments to help Katz’s managerial skills include technical people work to the best of their ability; (job-specific knowledge and techniques), supporting and encouraging others; helping human (ability to work well with people), and others find meaning and fulfillment in work; conceptual (ability to think and express etc.) and challenges (such as, it’s hard ideas). Technical skills are most important work; may have more clerical than for lower-level managers while conceptual managerial duties; have to deal with a skills are most important for top managers. variety of personalities; etc.) in being a developing plans to integrate and manager. coordinate activities TERMS: organizing Management function that involves working with and through people to manager Someone who coordinates and accomplish organizational goals oversees the work of other people so that organizational goals can be accomplished leading Management function that involves arranging and structuring work to first-line managers Managers at the lowest accomplish the organization’s goals level of management who manage the work of nonmanagerial employees controlling Management function that involves monitoring, comparing,and middle managers Managers between the correcting work performance lowest level and top levels of the organization who manage the work of managerial roles Specific actions or first-line managers behaviors expected of and exhibited by a manager top managers Managers at or near the upper levels of the organization structure interpersonal roles Managerial roles that who are responsible for making involve people and other duties that are organization-wide decisions and ceremonial and symbolic in nature establishing the goals and plans that affect the entire organization informational roles Managerial roles that involve collecting, receiving, and organization A deliberate arrangement of disseminating information people to accomplish some specific purpose decisional roles Managerial roles that management Coordinating and overseeing revolve around making choices the work activities of others so that their activities are completed efficiently and technical skills Job-specific knowledge effectively and techniques needed to proficiently perform work tasks efficiency Doing things right, or getting the most output from the least amount of inputs human skills The ability to work well with other people individually and in a group effectiveness Doing the right things, or completing activities so that organizational conceptual skills The ability to think and to goals are attained conceptualize about abstract and complex situations planning Management function that involves setting goals, establishing sustainability A company’s ability to strategies for achieving those goals, and achieve its business goals and increase long-term shareholder value by integrating economic,environmental, and social work performance. Fayol believed that the opportunities into its business strategies functions of management were common to all business endeavors but also were universality of management The reality distinct from other business functions. He that management is needed in all types and developed 14 principles of management sizes of organizations, at all organizational from which many current management levels, in all organizational areas, and in concepts have evolved. Weber described organizations no matter where located an ideal type of organization he called a bureaucracy, characteristics that many of Management History Module today’s large organizations still have. Today’s managers use the concepts of Describe some early management scientific management when they analyze examples. basic work tasks to be performed, use time-and-motion study to eliminate wasted Studying history is important because it motions, hire the best qualified workers for a helps us see the origins of today’s job, and design incentive systems based on management practices and recognize what output. They use general administrative has and has not worked. We can see early theory when they perform the functions of examples of management practice in the management and structure their construction of the Egyptian pyramids and organizations so that resources are used in the arsenal of Venice. One important efficiently and effectively. historical event was the publication of Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations, in which he Discuss the development and uses of argued the benefits of division of labor (job the behavioral approach. specialization). Another was the industrial revolution where it became more The early OB advocates (Robert Owen, economical to manufacture in factories than Hugo Munsterberg, Mary Parker Follett, and at home. Managers were needed to Chester Barnard) contributed various ideas, manage these factories and these but all believed that people were the most managers needed formal management important asset of the organization and theories to guide them. should be managed accordingly. The Hawthorne Studies dramatically affected Explain the various theories in the management beliefs about the role of classical approach. people in organizations, leading to a new emphasis on the human behavior factor in Frederick W. Taylor, known as the “father” of managing. The behavioral approach has scientific management, studied manual largely shaped how today’s organizations work using scientific principles—that is, are managed. Many current theories of guidelines for improving production motivation, leadership, group behavior and efficiency—to find the one best way to do development, and other behavioral issues those jobs. The Gilbreths’ primary can be traced to the early OB advocates contribution was finding efficient and the conclusions from the Hawthorne hand-and-body motions and designing Studies. proper tools and equipment for optimizing Describe the quantitative approach. the way my situation is, then this is the best way for me to manage The quantitative approach involves applications of statistics, optimization TERMS: models, information models, and computer simulations to management activities. division of labor (job specialization) The Today’s managers use the quantitative breakdown of jobs into narrow and repetitive approach, especially when making tasks decisions, as they plan and control work activities such as allocating resources, industrial revolution A period during the improving quality, scheduling work, or late eighteenth century when machine determining optimum inventory levels. Total power was substituted for human quality management—a management power,making it more economical to philosophy devoted to continual manufacture goods in factories than at improvement and responding to customer home needs and expectations— also makes use of quantitative methods to meet its goals. classical approach First studies of management,which emphasized rationality Explain the various theories in the and making organizations and workers as contemporary approach. efficient as possible The systems approach says that an scientific management An approach that organization takes in inputs (resources) involves using the scientific method to find from the environment and transforms or the “one best way”for a job to be done processes these resources into outputs that are distributed into the environment. This therbligs A classification scheme for approach provides a framework to help labeling basic hand motions managers understand how all the interdependent units work together in order general administrative theory An to achieve the organization’s goals and that approach to management that focuses on decisions and actions taken in one describing what managers do and what organizational area will affect others. In this constitutes good management practice way, managers can recognize that organizations are not self-contained, but principles of management Fundamental instead rely on their environment for rules of management that could be applied essential inputs and as outlets to absorb in all organizational situations and taught in their outputs. The contingency approach schools says that organizations are different, face different situations, and require different bureaucracy A form of organization ways of managing. It helps us understand characterized by division of labor, a clearly management because it stresses there are defined hierarchy, detailed rules and no simplistic or universal rules for managers regulations, and impersonal relationships to follow. Instead, managers must look at their situation and determine that if this is organizational behavior (OB) The study of organization’s success or failure. The the actions of people at work symbolic view argues that much of an organization’s success or failure is due to Hawthorne Studies A series of studies external forces outside managers’ control. during the 1920s and 1930s that provided The two constraints on managers discretion new insights into individual and group are the organization’s culture (internal) and behavior the environment (external). Managers aren’t totally constrained by these two factors quantitative approach The use of since they can and do influence their culture quantitative techniques to improve decision and environment. making Describe the constraints and challenges total quality management (TQM) A facing managers in today’s external philosophy of management that is driven by environment. continuous improvement and responsiveness to customer needs and The external environment includes those expectations factors and forces outside the organization that affect its performance. The main system A set of interrelated and components include economic, interdependent parts arranged in a manner demographic, political/legal, sociocultural, that produces a unified whole technological, and global. Managers face constraints and challenges from these closed system Systems that are not components because of the impact they influenced by and do not interact with their have on jobs and employment, environment environmental uncertainty, and stakeholder relationships. open system Systems that interact with their environment Discuss the characteristics and importance of organizational culture. contingency approach A management approach that recognizes organizations as The seven dimensions of culture are different, which means they face different attention to detail, outcome orientation, situations (contingencies) and require people orientation, team orientation, different ways of managing aggressiveness, stability, and innovation and risk taking. In organizations with strong Chapter 2: Understanding Management’s cultures, employees are more loyal and Context: Constraints and Challenges performance tends to be higher. The stronger a culture becomes, the more it Contrast the actions of managers affects the way managers plan, organize, according to the omnipotent and lead, and control. The original source of a symbolic views. culture reflects the vision of organizational founders. A culture is maintained by According to the omnipotent view, employee selection practices, the actions of managers are directly responsible for an top managers, and socialization processes. Also, culture is transmitted to employees omnipotent view of management The through stories, rituals, material symbols, view that managers are directly responsible and language. These elements help for an organization’s success or failure employees “learn” what values and behaviors are important as well as who symbolic view of management The view exemplifies those values. The culture that much of an organization’s success or affects how managers plan, organize, lead, failure is due to external forces outside and control. managers’ control Describe current issues in organizational external environment Those factors and culture. forces outside the organization that affect its performance The characteristics of an innovative culture are challenge and involvement, freedom, environmental uncertainty The degree of trust and openness, idea time, change and complexity in an organization’s playfulness/humor, conflict resolution, environment debates, and risk-taking. A customer-responsive culture has five environmental complexity The number of characteristics: outgoing and friendly components in an organization’s employees; jobs with few rigid rules, environment and the extent of the procedures, and regulations; empowerment; organization’s knowledge about those clear roles and expectations; and components employees who are conscientious in their desire to please the customer. Workplace stakeholders Any constituencies in the spirituality is important because employees organization’s environment that are affected are looking for a counterbalance to the by an organization’s decisions and actions stresses and pressures of a turbulent pace of life. Aging baby boomers and other organizational culture The shared workers are looking for something values,principles, traditions, and ways of meaningful in their lives, an involvement doing things that influence the way and connection that they often don’t find in organizational members act contemporary lifestyles, and to meet the needs that organized religion is not meeting strong cultures Organizational cultures in for some of them. Spiritual organizations which the key values are intensely held and tend to have five characteristics: strong widely shared sense of purpose, focus on individual development, trust and openness, socialization The process that helps employee empowerment, and toleration of employees adapt to the organization’s employee expression. culture TERMS: workplace spirituality A culture where organizational values promote a sense of purpose through meaningful work that takes place in the context of community  Tetley Tea is owned by the Tata Tea Group, Chapter 3: Managing in a Global a subsidiary of Indian conglomerate Tata Environment Group. 1. Tombstone and DiGiorno frozen pizzas 5. Volvo cars are products of a company are products of a company based in: based in: a. Italy a. United States b. United States b. United Kingdom c. Canada c. Japan d. Switzerland d. China Nestlé SA bought both the Tombstone and Ford Motor Company sold the Volvo brand DiGiorno frozen-pizza brands from Kraft to Chinese car maker Zhejiang Geely Foods in 2009. Holding Group Co. in March 2010. 2. Lebedyansky juices are owned by a 6. Dos Equis, Tecate, and Sol beer products company based in: are owned by a company based in: a. Japan a. The Netherlands b. United Kingdom b. Mexico c. United States c. United States d. Russia d. Colombia The maker of Lebedyansky juices was Mexico’s second-largest beer producer was acquired by PepsiCo Inc. and Pepsi Bottling acquired by Heineken N.V. in January 2010. Group Inc. in March 2008. 7. The company that produces Boboli pizza 3. Rajah spices are products of a company crust is based in: based in: a. United States a. United States b. Mexico b. Brazil c. Italy c. India d. Spain d. Switzerland Grupo Bimbo, one of the world’s largest Rajah Spices are products of the Lea & bakeries, bought the rights to make and Perrins sauce division, which the H.J. Heinz distribute Boboli pizza crusts in 2002. Company acquired in June of 2005. 8. The parent company of Braun electric 4. Tetley Tea is owned by a company shavers is located in: located in: a. Switzerland a. Great Britain b. Germany b. India c. United States c. Japan d. Japan d. Spain Braun electric shavers are a part of Global Gillette, which was purchased by the Russian tycoon Alexander Lebedev Procter & Gamble Company in October acquired the Independent in March 2010. 2005. 13. The company that makes French’s 9. The company that owns Sephora mustard is based in: Cosmetics retail stores is located in: a. China a. Germany b. United Kingdom b. Canada c. Japan c. France d. United States d. United States French’s mustard is a product of LVMH Moët Hennessy Louis Vuitton SA, the Reckitt-Benckiser. world’s largest luxury-goods group, owns Sephora. 14. Eight O’Clock Coffee is owned by a company located in: 10. The digital ad firm Barbarian Group is a. India owned by a company based in: b. Costa Rica a. United Kingdom c. United States b. United States d. Canada c. Greece d. South Korea Tata Coffee, a division of Indian conglomerate Tata Group, purchased Eight The Boston-based Barbarian Group was O’Clock Coffee in 2006. acquired by South Korea’s largest advertising agency, Cheil Worldwide, in 15. Frédérick Fekkai & Co. hair care December 2009. products are marketed by a company based in: 11. Lean Cuisine frozen meals are products a. Switzerland of a company based in: b. United States a. Germany c. France b. United States d. Italy c. Switzerland d. Brazil Consumer products giant Procter & Gamble purchased the luxury hair-care brand from a Nestlé SA purchased the maker of Lean private equity firm in 2008 Cuisine frozen meals in 2002. Contrast ethnocentric, polycentric, and 12. The British newspaper, the Independent, geocentric attitudes toward global is owned by a company based in: business. a. Russia b. United Kingdom Parochialism is viewing the world solely c. South Africa through your own eyes and perspectives d. Canada and not recognizing that others have different ways of living and working. An support in achieving sustainable economic ethnocentric attitude is the parochialistic growth and employment. belief that the best work approaches and practices are those of the home country. A Describe the structures and techniques polycentric attitude is the view that the organizations use as they go managers in the host country know the best international. work approaches and practices for running their business. And a geocentric attitude is a A multinational corporation is an world-oriented view that focuses on using international company that maintains the best approaches and people from operations in multiple countries. A around the globe. multidomestic organization is an MNC that decentralizes management and other Discuss the importance of regional decisions to the local country (the trading alliances and global trade polycentric attitude). A global organization is mechanisms. an MNC that centralizes management and other decisions in the home country (the The European Union consists of 27 ethnocentric attitude). A transnational democratic countries with three countries organization (the geocentric attitude) is an having applied for membership. Sixteen MNC that has eliminated artificial countries have adopted the euro and all geographical barriers and uses the best new member countries must adopt it. work practices and approaches from NAFTA continues to help Canada, Mexico, wherever. Global sourcing is purchasing and the United States strengthen their materials or labor from around the world global economic power. The U.S.–CAFTA wherever it is cheapest. Exporting is making alliance is still trying to get off the ground as products domestically and selling them is the proposed FTAA. Because of the abroad. Importing is acquiring products delays for CAFTA and FTAA, Mercosur made abroad and selling them domestically. (Southern Common Market) will likely take Licensing is used by manufacturing on new importance. ASEAN is a trading organizations that make or sell another alliance of ten Southeast Asian nations, a company’s products and gives that region that remains important in the global organization the right to use the company’s economy. The African Union and SAARC brand name, technology, or product are relatively new but will continue to see specifications. Franchising is similar but is benefits from their alliances. To counteract usually used by service organizations that some of the risks in global trade, the World want to use another company’s name and Trade Organization (WTO) plays an operating methods. A global strategic important role in monitoring and promoting alliance is a partnership between an trade relationships. The International organization and foreign company partners Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank in which they share resources and Group are two entities that provide knowledge to develop new products or build monetary support and advice to their facilities. A joint venture is a specific type of member countries. The Organization for strategic alliance in which the partners Economic Cooperation and Development agree to form a separate, independent assists its member countries with financial organization for some business purpose. A foreign subsidiary is a direct investment in a ethnocentric attitude The parochialistic foreign country that a company creates by belief that the best work approaches and establishing a separate and independent practices are those of the home country facility or office. polycentric attitude The view that the Explain the relevance of the managers in the host country know the best political/legal, economic, and cultural work approaches and practices for running environments to global business. their business The laws and political stability of a country geocentric attitude A world-oriented view are issues in the global political/legal that focuses on using the best approaches environment with which managers must be and people from around the globe familiar. Likewise, managers must be aware of a country’s economic issues such as European Union (EU) A union of 27 currency exchange rates, inflation rates, European nations created as a unified and tax policies. Geert Hofstede identified economic and trade entity five dimensions for assessing a country’s culture including individualism-collectivism, euro A single common European currency power distance, uncertainty avoidance, achievement-nurturing, and North American Free Trade Agreement long-term/short-term orientation. The (NAFTA) An agreement among the GLOBE studies identified nine dimensions Mexican,Canadian, and U.S.governments in for assessing country cultures: power which barriers to trade have been distance, uncertainty avoidance, eliminated assertiveness, humane orientation, future orientation, institutional collectivism, gender Association of Southeast Asian Nations differentiation, in-group collectivism, and (ASEAN) A trading alliance of 10 Southeast performance orientation. The main Asian nations challenges of doing business globally in today’s world include (1) the openness World Trade Organization (WTO) A global associated with globalization and the organization of 153 countries that deals with significant cultural differences between the rules of trade among nations countries; and (2) managing a global workforce, which requires cultural International Monetary Fund (IMF) An intelligence and a global mind-set. organization of 185 countries that promotes international monetary cooperation and TERMS: provides advice,loans,and technical assistance parochialism Viewing the world solely through your own perspectives,leading to an World Bank Group A group of five closely inability to recognize differences between associated institutions that provides people financial and technical assistance to developing countries Organization for Economic Cooperation partner(s) in which both share resources and Development (OECD) An international and knowledge in developing new products economic organization that helps its 30 or building production facilities member countries achieve sustainable economic growth and employment joint venture A specific type of strategic alliance in which the partners agree to form multinational corporation (MNC) A broad a separate,independent organization for term that refers to any and all types of some business purpose international companies that maintain operations in multiple countries foreign subsidiary Directly investing in a foreign country by setting up a separate and multidomestic corporation An MNC that independent production facility or office decentralizes management and other decisions to the local country free market economy An economic system in which resources are primarily owned and global company An MNC that centralizes controlled by the private sector management and other decisions in the home country planned economy An economic system in which economic decisions are planned by a transnational or borderless organization central government An MNC in which artificial geographical barriers are eliminated national culture The values and attitudes shared by individuals from a specific country global sourcing Purchasing materials or that shape their behavior and beliefs about labor from around the world wherever it is what is important cheapest Global Leadership and Organizational exporting Making products domestically Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) program and selling them abroad The research program that studies cross-cultural leadership behaviors importing Acquiring products made abroad and selling them domestically cultural intelligence Cultural awareness and sensitivity skills licensing An organization gives another organization the right to use its name and global mind-set Attributes that allow a operating methods leader to be effective in cross-cultural environments franchising An organization gives another organization the right to make or sell its products using its technology or product specifications strategic alliance A partnership between an organization and a foreign company ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE BY Sustainable development is the idea that we CUNNINGHAM can improve people’s lives without reducing resources and opportunities for future Chapter 1: Understanding Our generations. This goal may or may not be Environment achievable, but it is an important ideal that can help us understand and identify CONCLUSION appropriate and fair directions for improving people’s lives around the world. We face many environmental dilemmas, but there are also many opportunities for Ethics and faith-based perspectives often improving lives without damaging our inspire people to work for resource shared environment. China’s growth and conservation, because ethical frameworks innovation provide examples of those and religions often promote ideas of challenges and opportunities. Both in China fairness and or stewardship of the world we and globally, we face air and water pollution, have received. One important ethical chronic hunger, water shortages, and other principle is the notion of moral problems. On the other hand, we have seen extensionism. Stewardship, or taking care of important innovations in transportation, our environment, has been a guiding energy production, food production, and principle for many faith based groups. Often international cooperation for environmental these groups have led the struggle for protection. Environmental science is a environmental justice for minority and discipline that draws on many kinds of low-income communities. knowledge to understand these problems and to help find solutions—which can draw REVIEWING LEARNING OUTCOMES on knowledge from technological, biological, economic, political, social, and many other By now you should be able to explain the fields of study. following points: There are deep historic roots to our efforts 1.1 Define environmental science and to protect our environment. Utilitarian identify some important environmental conservation has been a common incentive; concerns we face today. aesthetic preservation also motivates many people to work for conservation. Social Environmental science is the systematic progress, and a concern for making sure study of our environment and our proper that all people have access to a healthy place in it. environment, has also important motivating China is a good case study of factors in environmental science and in environmental concerns including environmental conservation. Inequitable population growth, poverty, food supplies, distribution of resources has been a air and water pollution, energy choices, and persistent concern. Growing consumption of the threats of global climate change. energy, water, land, and other resources makes many questions in environmental 1.2 Think critically about the major science more urgent. environmental dilemmas and issues that shape our current environmental Indigenous people are important guardians agenda. of nature. We live on a marvelous planet of rich 1.6 Explain some key points of biodiversity and complex ecological environmental ethics. systems. We face many serious environmental We can extend moral value to people and problems including water supplies, safe things. drinking water, hunger, land degradation, energy, air quality, and biodiversity losses. 1.7 Identify ways in which faith-based There are many signs of hope in terms of groups share concerns for our social progress, environmental protection, environment. energy choices, and the spread of democracy. Many faiths support environmental conservation. 1.3 Discuss the history of conservation Environmental justice combines civil rights and the different attitudes toward nature and environmental protection. at various times in our past. Environmental racism distributes hazards inequitably. Nature protection has historic roots. Resource waste inspired pragmatic, PRACTICE QUIZ utilitarian conservation. Ethical and aesthetic concerns inspired the 1. Define environment and environmental preservation movement. science. Rising pollution levels led to the modern environmental movement. - Environment can be defined as the Global interconnections have expanded circumstances or conditions that surround environmentalism an organism or group of organisms, including the natural world of plants, 1.4 Appreciate the human dimensions of animals, soils, air, and water, as well as the environmental science, including the social or cultural conditions that affect connection between poverty and individuals or communities. On the other environmental degradation. hand, environmental science is the systematic study of our environment and We live in an inequitable world. our proper place in it, integrating natural Is there enough for everyone? sciences, social sciences, and humanities to Recent progress is encouraging. understand the world around us. (from Page 14 and 33) 1.5 Explain sustainable development and evaluate some of its requirements. 2. Describe four stages in conservation history and identify one leader Can development be truly sustainable? associated with each stage. What is the role of international aid? - Pragmatic Resource Conservation: George Perkins Marsh, author of "Man and 4. Identify some signs of hope for Nature" in 1864, highlighted the ecological solving environmental problems. consequences of resource waste. - China's progress in addressing social and Moral and Aesthetic Nature Preservation: environmental issues, such as the President Theodore Roosevelt and his widespread use of renewable energy conservation advisor Gifford Pinchot sources like wind and solar power. emphasized utilitarian conservation to Citizens planting trees in China to combat protect forests and watersheds. soil erosion and flooding, showcasing community involvement in environmental Growing Concern about Health and conservation efforts. Pollution: Aldo Leopold, a wildlife ecologist, focused on ethical relationships Global initiatives to reduce carbon dioxide with nature and land stewardship. emissions through energy conservation and sustainable energy technologies. Global Environmental Citizenship: David Brower, executive director of environmental Satellite data indicating positive changes in organizations, introduced modern polar regions, suggesting a shift towards environmentalism techniques like litigation renewable energy and environmental and media campaigns. (from Page 19 and awareness. 20) Growing awareness and actions towards 3. List six environmental dilemmas that sustainable development and resource we now face and summarize how each conservation worldwide. (from Page 12, 13, concerns us. and 17) - We face six environmental dilemmas that concern us due to their significant impacts 5. What is extreme poverty, and why on our planet and society. should we care? ~ Loss of biodiversity threatens ecological life-support systems. - Extreme poverty is when individuals live ~ Overfishing and deforestation are on less than (U.S.)$1 per day, lacking depleting vital resources. access to basic necessities like food, ~ Water scarcity and pollution affect human housing, sanitation, water, education, and health and well-being. healthcare. ~ Population growth strains natural It is crucial to care about extreme poverty resources and ecosystems. because it not only deprives individuals of a ~ Climate change poses risks to global decent, healthy life but also leads to stability and biodiversity. environmental degradation as the poorest ~ Pollution from various sources harms people are forced to prioritize short-term ecosystems and human health. (from Page survival over long-term sustainability. (from 16 and 17) Page 23 and 24)  3. Resource Consumption: China's economic growth has raised questions 6. How much difference is there in per about the sustainability of its resource capita income, infant mortality, and CO2 consumption, especially in terms of energy production between the poorest and and water usage, which could have global richest countries? implications if not managed effectively. (from Page 13) - Per Capita Income: The per capita income in the least-developed countries is $39, while in the most-developed countries, 8. Define sustainable development. it is $30,589. This shows a significant difference in wealth distribution between the - Sustainable development is the concept poorest and richest nations. of meeting the needs of the present Infant Mortality: Infant mortality in the generation without compromising the ability least-developed countries is 97 per 1,000 of future generations to meet their own live births, whereas in the most-developed needs. It involves ensuring progress in countries, it is only 5 per 1,000 live births. human well-being that can be extended This indicates a stark contrast in healthcare over many generations by not depleting and living conditions between the two resources faster than nature can recycle groups of countries. them. Sustainable development aims to CO2 Production: The CO2 production per provide benefits to all humans, not just a capita in the least-developed countries is privileged few, by balancing economic 0.2 tons, whereas in the most-developed growth with environmental protection and countries, it is 13 tons. This highlights the social equity. (from Page 26) disparity in environmental impact and carbon emissions between the poorest and 9. How much would it cost to eliminate richest nations. (from Page 24) acute poverty and ensure basic human needs for everyone? 7. Why should we be worried about - To eliminate acute poverty and ensure economic growth in China? basic human needs for everyone, it would cost approximately $135 billion per year - 1. Environmental Impact: Economic according to the United Nations growth in China has led to increased Development Agency. This amount would pollution levels, with air pollution exceeding be used for universal childhood vaccination, national standards in 70% of cities and access to primary education, family severe water pollution affecting 70% of planning services, safe drinking water, food rivers and lakes. supplements, and microcredit loans for 2. Health Concerns: The rapid economic self-employment. Shifting a portion of global growth has resulted in an estimated military spending towards development aid 400,000 deaths annually due to respiratory could help achieve this goal. (from Page 27) illnesses and other health effects of air pollution, raising significant public health 10. Why are indigenous people important concerns. as guardians of nature?  inductive reasoning (deriving a general rule - Indigenous people are important as from observations). guardians of nature because they possess valuable ecological wisdom and safeguard Hypotheses and theories are basic tools of little-disturbed habitats that are home to rare science. A hypothesis is a testable question. and endangered species. They hold A theory is a well-tested explanation that knowledge about nature and have a deep explains observations and that is accepted understanding of their environment, by the scientific community. Probability is encoded in their languages, customs, and also a key idea: chance is involved in many practices. By recognizing native land rights events, and circumstances can influence and promoting political pluralism, ecological probabilities— such as your chances of processes and endangered species can be getting a cold or of getting an A in this safeguarded effectively. class. We often use probability to measure uncertainty when we test our hypotheses. In summary, indigenous people play a crucial role in preserving biodiversity and Models and systems are also central ideas. maintaining relatively undamaged A system is a network of interdependent ecosystems. Their unique knowledge about components and processes. For example, nature and inalienable rights to traditional an ecosystem consists of plants, animals, territories make them essential guardians of and other components, and energy and the environment. (from Page 28) nutrients transfer among those components. Systems have general characteristics we Chapter 2: Principles of Science and can describe, including throughput, Systems feedbacks, homeostasis, resilience, and emergent properties. Often we use models CONCLUSION (simplified representations of systems), to describe or manipulate a system. Models Science is a process for producing vary in complexity, according to their knowledge methodically and logically. purposes, from a paper airplane to a global Scientists try to understand the world by circulation model. making observations and trying to discern patterns and rules that explain those Science aims to foster debate and inquiry, observations. Scientists try to remain but scientific consensus emerges as most cautious and skeptical of conclusions, experts come to agree on well-supported because we understand that any set of theoretical explanations. Sometimes new observations is only a sample of all possible explanations revolutionize science, but observations. In order to make sure we scientific consensus helps us identify which follow a careful and methodical approach, ideas and theories are well supported by we often use the scientific method, which is evidence, and which are not supported the step-by-step process of forming a testable question, doing tests, and REVIEWING LEARNING OUTCOMES interpreting results. Scientists use both deductive reasoning (deducing an By now you should be able to explain the explanation from general principles) and following points:  careful observations, testing hypotheses, 2.1 Describe the scientific method and using deductive and inductive reasoning, explain how it works. and relying on well-tested explanations known as theories. Science also Science depends on skepticism and emphasizes the importance of skepticism, accuracy. accuracy, and the use of models to describe Deductive and inductive reasoning are and manipulate systems. Through science, both useful. we aim to understand the world and Testable hypotheses and theories are address practical needs by producing essential tools. valuable knowledge. (from Page 38 and 48) Understanding probability helps reduce uncertainty. 2. Why are widely accepted, Statistics can calculate the probability that well-defended scientific explanations your results were random. called “theories”? Experimental design can reduce bias. Models are an important experimental - In the scientific community, widely strategy accepted and well-defended scientific explanations are called "theories" because 2.2 Explain systems and how they’re they are supported by an overwhelming useful in science. body of data and experience. Systems are composed of processes. Unlike the public perception of theories as Disturbances and emergent properties are speculative and unsupported by facts, in important characteristics of many systems. science, a theory is a reliable description or explanation that has been rigorously tested 2.3 Evaluate the role of scientific and generally accepted by a majority of consensus and conflict. experts. Detecting pseudoscience relies on These theories are considered tentative and independent, critical thinking. open to revision and correction, but they What’s the relation between environmental represent the best understanding based on science and environmentalism? current evidence and are crucial for advancing scientific knowledge. (from page PRACTICE QUIZ 38 and 40) 1. What is science? What are some of its basic principles? 3. Explain the following terms: probability, dependent variable, - Science is a systematic process for independent variable, and model. acquiring knowledge through precise observations of natural phenomena. It - Probability: involves developing and testing theories to Probability is a measure of how likely explain how processes work. The basic something is to occur. It is often based on principles of science include making previous observations or statistical measures. For example, if you have a 20% swans are white based on observing chance of catching a cold, it means that 20 multiple white swans. out of 100 people are likely to catch a cold. Deductive reasoning starts with a general Dependent Variable: premise to reach a specific conclusion. For The dependent variable, also known as the instance, knowing that all planets orbit a response variable, is influenced by the star, you can deduce that Earth orbits the independent variables in a study. It is Sun. (from page 39) usually represented on the vertical (Y) axis in a graph. For instance, in a population 5. Draw a diagram showing the steps of growth model, the population size the scientific method, and explain why (dependent variable) is affected by factors each is important. like growth rate (independent variable). - Steps of the Scientific Method: Independent Variable: Observation: The first step involves observing a phenomenon or asking a Independent variables, also called question about the natural world. explanatory variables, are factors that are Hypothesis: Formulate a testable manipulated or controlled in a study to explanation or prediction based on the observe their effect on the dependent observation. variable. They are often plotted on the Experiment: Design and conduct an horizontal (X) axis in a graph. These experiment to test the hypothesis and variables are not truly independent as they collect data. can be influenced by the same conditions Analysis: Interpret the data collected during as the dependent variable. the experiment to draw conclusions. Conclusion: Based on the analysis, draw Model: A model is a simplified conclusions and determine if the hypothesis representation of a real system or is supported or rejected. phenomenon. It can be a physical model like a wind tunnel used to test cars or a Importance of Each Step: mathematical equation representing a Observation: It initiates the scientific population growth model. Models help process by identifying a problem or a scientists understand and predict complex question to be explored. processes by focusing on essential Hypothesis: It provides a clear, testable components and relationships. (from Page prediction that guides the experiment and 34, 42, and 43) helps focus the research. Experiment: Through experimentation, data is collected to either support or refute the 4. What are inductive and deductive hypothesis, leading to objective reasoning? Describe an example in conclusions. which you have used each. Analysis: Data analysis allows for the interpretation of results and the drawing of - Inductive reasoning involves drawing meaningful conclusions. general conclusions from specific observations. An example is inferring that all Conclusion: Conclusions drawn help in body where sweating cools the body down understanding the implications of the when it becomes hot during exercise. (from research and its contribution to scientific Page 44, 45, and 62) knowledge. (from Page 39 and 48) 8. Explain what a model is. Give an 6. What is scientific consensus and why example. is it important? - A model is a simplified representation of a - Scientific Consensus: system or concept. It helps in understanding Scientific consensus is the general complex phenomena by focusing on agreement among informed scholars on essential elements and relationships. For well-supported theoretical explanations in example, a mathematical equation the scientific community. It emerges when a describing population growth is a model. It majority of experts accept a particular idea uses variables like population size and or theory based on evidence and research growth rate to predict changes over time. findings. Models can range from simple physical representations to complex mathematical Importance of Scientific Consensus: simulations. (from Page 43) Scientific consensus is crucial as it helps distinguish between ideas and theories that 9. Why do we say that proof is elusive in are strongly supported by evidence from science? those that are not. It provides a foundation for decision-making, policy formulation, and - In science, proof is considered elusive public understanding of complex scientific because it is challenging to provide absolute issues. (from Page 46) certainty for a theory or hypothesis. New evidence can always emerge that may 7. What is a positive feedback loop? contradict or undermine our current What is a negative feedback loop? Give understanding, leading to the need for an example of each. continuous testing and refinement of theories. - Positive Feedback Loop: A positive feedback loop is a Scientific investigations rely on observations self-perpetuating process where a change and experiments, which can be limited in leads to further similar changes in the same scope and unable to account for all possible direction. An example of a positive feedback variables. This inherent limitation makes it loop is in a grassland where a grass plant difficult to achieve complete and irrefutable grows more leaves, capturing more energy proof for scientific theories. for producing even more leaves. Furthermore, the dynamic nature of Negative Feedback Loop: scientific knowledge means that A negative feedback loop is a process that explanations and theories evolve with new helps to maintain stability in a system by evidence. This constant evolution highlights counteracting any changes. An example of the elusive nature of proof in science, as a negative feedback loop is in the human what may be considered true today could be revised or disproven in the future based on systems need a constant supply of external new discoveries. (from page 38 and 39) energy to replace that lost to entropy. Some extremophiles, living in harsh conditions, 10. What is a manipulative experiment? such as hot springs or the bottom of the A natural experiment? A controlled ocean, capture energy from chemical study? reactions. For most organisms, however, the ultimate source of energy is the sun. - Manipulative Experiment Plants capture sunlight through the process A manipulative experiment is one where of photosynthesis, and use the captured conditions are deliberately altered, keeping energy for metabolic processes and to build all other variables constant. This type of biomass (organic material). Herbivores eat experiment allows researchers to control plants to obtain energy and nutrients, and test specific variables to observe their carnivores eat herbivores or each other, and effects. decomposers eat the waste products of this food web. Natural Experiment A natural experiment involves observing This dependence on solar energy is a events that have already occurred without fundamental limit for most life on earth. It’s any manipulation by the researcher. estimated that humans now dominate Scientists rely on natural experiments when roughly 40 percent of the potential terrestrial it is not feasible or ethical to create certain net productivity. We directly eat only about conditions for study. 10 percent of that total (mainly because of the thermodynamic limits on energy Controlled Study transfers in food webs), but the crops and In a controlled study, researchers compare livestock that feed, clothe, and house us a treatment group (exposed to certain represent the rest of that photosynthetic conditions) with a control group (not output. By dominating nature, as we do, we exposed). By keeping all other variables exclude other species. constant except the one being studied, researchers can determine the impact of the While energy flows in a complex, but specific variable on the outcome. (from ultimately one-way path through nature, page 42) materials are endlessly recycled. Five of the major material cycles (water, carbon, Chapter 3: Matter, Energy, and Life nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur) are summarized in this chapter. Each of these CONCLUSION materials is critically important to living organisms. As humans interfere with these Matter is conserved as it cycles over and material cycles, we make it easier for some over through ecosystems, but energy is organisms to survive and more difficult for always degraded or dissipated as it is others. Often, we’re intent on manipulating transformed or transferred from one place to material cycles for our own short-term gain, another. These laws of physics and but we don’t think about the consequences thermodynamics mean that elements are for other species or even for ourselves in continuously recycled, but that living the long-term. An example of that is the carbon cycle. Our lives are made easier and more comfortable by burning fossil fuels, but 3.4 Define species, populations, in doing so we release carbon dioxide into communities, and ecosystems, and the atmosphere, causing global warming summarize the ecological significance of that could have disastrous results. Clearly, trophic levels. it’s important to understand these environmental systems and to take them Organisms occur in populations, into account in our public policy communities, and ecosystems. Food chains, food webs, and trophic levels REVIEWING LEARNING OUTCOMES link species. Ecological pyramids describe trophic By now you should be able to explain the levels. following points: 3.5 Compare the ways that water, carbon, 3.1 Describe matter, atoms, and nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus cycle molecules and give simple examples of within ecosystems. the role of four major kinds of organic compounds in living cells. The hydrologic cycle moves water around the earth. Matter is made of atoms, molecules, and Carbon moves through the carbon cycle. compounds. Nitrogen moves via the nitrogen cycle. Chemical bonds hold molecules together. Phosphorus is an essential nutrient. Electrical charge is an important Remote sensing allows us to evaluate characteristic. photosynthesis and material cycles. Organic compounds have a carbon Sulfur also cycles backbone. Cells are the fundamental units of life. PRACTICE QUIZ 3.2 Define energy and explain how 1. Define atom and element. Are these thermodynamics regulates ecosystems. terms interchangeable? Energy occurs in different types and - An atom is the smallest unit of matter that qualities. retains the properties of an element. It Thermodynamics regulates energy consists of protons, neutrons, and electrons. transfers. On the other hand, an element is a substance made up of only one type of 3.3 Understand how living organisms atom. Elements are organized in the capture energy and create organic periodic table based on their atomic compounds. number. Extremophiles live in severe conditions Atoms are the building blocks of elements, Green plants get energy from the sun. and elements are the pure substances Photosynthesis captures energy while made up of only one type of atom. While respiration releases that energy. atoms are the basic units of matter, elements are the fundamental substances Cohesiveness: Water molecules are that cannot be broken down into simpler cohesive, sticking together tenaciously, forms by ordinary chemical reactions. (from which is evident in capillary action and page 53, 54 and 72) movement of water and nutrients. 2. Your body contains vast numbers of Expansion Upon Freezing: Water expands carbon atoms. How is it possible that when it crystallizes, making ice less dense some of these carbon atoms may have than liquid water and allowing it to float. been part of the body of a prehistoric creature? High Heat of Vaporization: Water requires a great deal of heat to convert from liquid to - Some of the carbon atoms in your body vapor, making evaporating water an may have been part of the body of a effective way for organisms to shed excess prehistoric creature due to the continuous heat. recycling of carbon in the environment. Surface Tension and Adhesion: Water When prehistoric organisms died, their has the highest surface tension of any bodies decomposed and released carbon common natural liquid and adheres to into the environment, which eventually surfaces, enabling capillary action and became part of the carbon cycle. movement of water and nutrients. (from Page 55) Over millions of years, these carbon atoms were incorporated into various forms, 4. In the biosphere, matter follows a including fossil fuels like coal and oil, which circular pathway while energy follows a are now being used by humans. (from page linear pathway. Explain. 67 and 71) - Matter in the biosphere follows a circular 3. What are six characteristics of water pathway, continuously recycled through that make it so valuable for living living and non-living components. Nutrients organisms and their environment? and elements are exchanged among organisms and the environment, creating a - Characteristics of Water Valuable for closed-loop system. Living Organisms and Their Environment On the other hand, energy in the Polarity: Water molecules are polar, biosphere follows a linear pathway, allowing them to dissolve polar or ionic entering ecosystems from the sun and substances and transport materials to and flowing through trophic levels. Energy is not from cells. recycled but instead dissipates as heat, requiring a constant influx to sustain life Inorganic Liquid at Suitable processes. (from Page 66 and 72) Temperatures: Water is the only inorganic liquid that exists under normal conditions at 5. The oceans store a vast amount of temperatures suitable for life. heat, but (except for climate moderation) this huge reservoir of energy is of little use to humans. Explain the difference Conformance to Thermodynamics between high-quality and low-quality energy. The flow of energy in ecosystems follows the laws of thermodynamics. - High-Quality Energy: High-quality energy is intense, Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but concentrated, and high in temperature, it is transformed and transferred through making it valuable for carrying out work different trophic levels. (62 and 72) efficiently. Examples include intense flames of a hot fire or high-voltage electrical 7. Heat is released during metabolism. energy, which are useful to humans due to How is this heat useful to a cell and to a their concentrated form. multicellular organism? How might it be detrimental, especially in a large, Low-Quality Energy: complex organism? On the other hand, low-quality energy is diffused, dispersed, and low in temperature, - Heat released during metabolism is making it challenging to gather and utilize useful to a cell as it helps maintain its for productive purposes. An example is the internal temperature for optimal functioning. immense heat stored in oceans, which is In multicellular organisms, this heat is hard to capture and use effectively, thus beneficial for regulating body temperature considered low quality. (58) and supporting metabolic processes. However, in large, complex organisms, 6. Ecosystems require energy to excessive heat from metabolism can be function. Where does this energy come detrimental, leading to overheating, cellular from? Where does it go? How does the damage, and potential organ failure. 60 flow of energy conform to the laws of thermodynamics? 8. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are complementary - Ecosystem Energy Flow processes. Explain how they exemplify Where does the energy come from? the laws of conservation of matter and thermodynamics. Energy in ecosystems mainly comes from the sun through photosynthesis. - Conservation of Matter: Photosynthesis and cellular respiration exemplify the law Photosynthetic organisms like green plants of conservation of matter by showing that and algae are known as producers. the atoms involved in the reactants are balanced with those in the products. This Where does the energy go? means that matter is neither created nor destroyed during these processes. Energy flows through ecosystems in food chains and food webs. Thermodynamics: These processes also adhere to the laws of thermodynamics. It is transferred from producers to Photosynthesis captures solar energy to consumers and eventually to decomposers. convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen, representing the energy transfer inefficiencies in an conversion of light energy into chemical ecosystem. energy. On the other hand, cellular respiration releases energy by breaking As energy moves up trophic levels, only down glucose with oxygen to produce about 10% is transferred, resulting in less carbon dioxide, water, and ATP, energy available for higher trophic levels demonstrating the conversion of chemical like large carnivores. energy into usable energy for the cell. 61 This inefficiency leads to a pyramid 9. What do we mean by carbon-fixation structure where fewer large carnivores can or nitrogen-fixation? Why is it important be supported by a larger population of to humans that carbon and nitrogen be herbivores and primary consumers. 64 “fixed”? 11. A species is a specific kind of - Carbon-fixation refers to the process organism. What general characteristics where carbon dioxide from the atmosphere do individuals of a particular species is converted into organic compounds by share? Why is it important for ecologists plants during photosynthesis. This process to differentiate among the various is crucial as it forms the basis of the food species in a biological community? chain by providing energy for all living organisms. - General Characteristics of a Species Individuals of a particular species share Nitrogen-fixation, on the other hand, is the genetic similarity to breed in nature and conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into a produce fertile offspring. form that plants can use, mainly through the action of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. This They exhibit similar physical characteristics, process is essential because nitrogen is a behaviors, and ecological roles within their vital component of amino acids, proteins, environment. and nucleic acids necessary for life. 69 Importance of Differentiating Among 10. The population density of large Species carnivores is always very small compared to the population density of Ecologists differentiate among species in a herbivores occupying the same biological community to understand the ecosystem. Explain this in relation to the diversity and interactions within concept of an ecological pyramid. ecosystems. - Explanation of Large Carnivore By identifying and studying different Population Density in Relation to species, ecologists can analyze food webs, Ecological Pyramid energy flow, and overall ecosystem dynamics more effectively. 6162 Large carnivores have a small population density compared to herbivores due to the LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT (17TH EDITION) BY MILLER 1. Review the Key Questi