Reading in Philippine History PDF

system, later amended to include a Reading in Philippine History bicameral Congress. It recognized the by Candelario and Alporna 2022 eventual goal of Philippine independence,...

system, later amended to include a Reading in Philippine History bicameral Congress. It recognized the by Candelario and Alporna 2022 eventual goal of Philippine independence, which was realized in Chapter 4 1946. Social, Political, 4. 1973 - Constitutional Authoritarianism: Under Ferdinand Economic, and Marcos, the 1935 Constitution was amended to create a parliamentary Cultural Issued in the system with a powerful president. Marcos declared Martial Law in 1972, effectively Philippine History manipulating the constitution to extend his rule. The system became increasingly Prepared by: Prof. Hilario authoritarian, with amendments consolidating Marcos' power, until the The evolution of the Philippine Constitution 1986 People Power Revolution ousted reflects the country's changing political him. landscape, marked by struggles for independence, shifts in governance, and the 5. 1987 - 1987 Philippine Constitution: influence of both local and foreign powers. This constitution, which is still in effect today, was created after the fall of 1. 1897 - Constitution of Biak-na-Bato: Marcos. It sought to restore democracy, The first attempt to establish a Philippine limit presidential powers, and ensure Republic during the revolution against checks and balances, marking a Spanish rule. It proposed a Supreme significant departure from the Council of Government and an Assembly authoritarian regime. of Representatives, though it was never fully implemented due to a truce with The 1987 Philippine Constitution, drafted after Spain. the end of martial law under Ferdinand Marcos, aimed to break away from the abuses of the past 2. 1899 - Malolos Constitution: After the and establish a democratic government based Spanish defeat, the Philippines declared on the ideals and aspirations of the Filipino independence. The Malolos Constitution people. Following the 1986 People Power established a democratic government, Revolution, President Corazon Aquino's inspired by various international administration chose to craft a new constitution, constitutions and emphasizing initiating a transitional period with the Freedom sovereignty, natural rights, and the Constitution in 1986, which lasted a year. separation of Church and State. However, it was never enforced due to the Philippine-American War. A Constitutional Commission was formed to 3. 1935 - Commonwealth Constitution: draft a permanent constitution, which was This constitution was crafted to pave the ratified in February 1987. The Constitution set way for Philippine independence from the up a democratic republican state, with U.S. It established the Commonwealth of sovereignty vested in the people, and divided the Philippines with a presidential government powers into three branches: and promote development. In December 2016, executive, legislative, and judicial. Duterte created a consultative committee to review the Constitution and explore federalism The executive branch is headed by the as a solution to the country’s challenges. president, who serves a single six-year term and has limited powers. In emergencies, the While federalism offers potential benefits, such president may declare martial law, but only for as more local autonomy and specialized up to 60 days, subject to checks by Congress regional development, critics warn of possible and the Supreme Court. The legislature is a economic disparities and governance bicameral Congress, composed of the Senate challenges. There are also concerns about the and the House of Representatives. Senators cost and complexity of transitioning to a federal serve six-year terms, while representatives system. Federalism remains a contentious issue serve three-year terms, with the House in Philippine politics, with debates about its incorporating a party-list system to represent feasibility and its impact on national unity and marginalized groups. Congress has the power development. to declare war but is subject to executive veto, which can be overridden by a two-thirds vote. The policies on agrarian reform in the The judicial branch is headed by a 15-member Philippines trace the long history of struggles Supreme Court, appointed by the president, and for land ownership and the attempts to address is tasked with interpreting the constitutionality of the issue of landlessness, which remains a laws and overseeing the functioning of lower significant challenge for the agricultural sector. courts. Independent bodies, such as the Civil Service Commission, Commission on Elections, Colonial Period and Commission on Audit, were created to Under Spanish rule, the agrarian system was promote accountability, and the Office of the marked by the encomienda system, where Ombudsman investigates public corruption. Filipinos were forced to work land owned by The Constitution provides three methods for its Spanish encomenderos. This system eventually amendment: through a Constituent Assembly evolved into the hacienda system in the 19th (Con-Ass), a Constitutional Convention (Con- century, where land was concentrated in the Con), or a People's Initiative (PI), with any hands of a few, including religious orders. The changes requiring ratification via a national lack of land ownership among Filipinos led to referendum. widespread discontent, often manifesting in agrarian uprisings. Several attempts at amending the Constitution occurred in the following decades. Under American Period President Fidel V. Ramos in 1995, a draft The U.S. administration attempted to address constitution was exposed and failed. In 1997, the land problem by passing laws such as the the People's Initiative to change the Constitution Philippine Bill of 1902 and the Land Registration was blocked by the Supreme Court. Other Act of 1903, which regulated land ownership. efforts followed under President Joseph Estrada The homestead program introduced in 1903 and his successor Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, but allowed tenants to acquire land, but it primarily none succeeded. However, the push for benefited wealthier individuals and corporate federalism gained momentum under President interests. This, combined with lack of support Rodrigo Duterte, who supported a shift to a services for land reform beneficiaries, led to federal system to address regional disparities continued social unrest, including the Colorum Under Ferdinand Marcos, agrarian reform and Sakdal uprisings (1930s). intensified following the declaration of Martial Law in 1972. Presidential Decree No. 27, issued Commonwealth Period in 1972, aimed to transfer land ownership to During the Commonwealth government under tenant farmers, focusing on rice and corn lands. President Manuel Quezon, efforts toward However, loopholes allowed landlords to agrarian reform continued, including the circumvent the law, and landlessness persisted. purchase of haciendas for redistribution and the Post-Marcos and Aquino Administration creation of the National Rice and Corn Corporation (NARIC) to assist peasants. After Marcos’ overthrow, President Corazon However, these initiatives failed due to Aquino sought to make agrarian reform a central insufficient funding and resistance from policy, issuing Proclamation 131 and Executive landowners, further exacerbated by World War Order 229 in 1987. In 1988, Congress passed II. Republic Act No. 6657 (Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law or CARL), which Post-War Period redistributed land to tenant-farmers with Post-World War II, agrarian reform efforts government compensation to landowners. continued under Presidents Roxas and Quirino. However, the program faced resistance from the The 1946 Republic Act No. 34 aimed to landed elite, and Aquino's connection to a establish a 70-30 sharing arrangement between landed family made the process controversial. tenants and landlords. The government also CARP achieved only limited success during her attempted to redistribute land, but again, the term, with only 22.5% of the land distribution lack of support services and peasant uprisings target completed by 1992. led to failure. Fidel Ramos and Extension of CARP Ramon Magsaysay’s Administration President Ramos, facing the need to meet President Magsaysay in the 1950s introduced CARP's ambitious goals, sought to accelerate the Agricultural Tenancy Act (Republic Act No. land distribution. By 1996, only 58.25% of the 1199), protecting tenant farmers’ rights and target was completed. In 1998, Republic Act No. regulating landowner-tenant relations. However, 8532 extended CARP for another ten years, but the implementation of agrarian reform remained challenges in funding and political resistance slow, and many landed elites resisted the persisted. reforms. CARPER (2009-2014) Diosdado Macapagal's Administration In 2009, President Arroyo signed Republic Act A significant leap in agrarian reform came during No. 9700, which extended the CARP through President Diosdado Macapagal's term with the the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program passing of the Agricultural Land Reform Code Extension with Reforms (CARPER) until 2014. (Republic Act No. 3844) in 1963. This law Despite the extension, only a fraction of the total abolished share tenancy and emphasized area was distributed, with 500,000 hectares still owner-cultivatorship, but it lacked the necessary unreformed by 2014. The main obstacles funding and failed to achieve widespread included the influence of the landed elite and success. ineffective government implementation. Marcos Era In conclusion, agrarian reform in the Philippines more easily than peasants. In addition, two has faced centuries of resistance, limited direct taxes were added in 1878: the Urbana support, and bureaucratic inefficiencies. While (tax on urban property rentals) and Industria laws have been passed to address the land (tax on salaries, dividends, and profits). These issues, the ongoing dominance of the landed taxes were imposed on various economic elite and inadequate implementation have activities, except agriculture, which was hindered genuine reform, leaving Filipino exempted to encourage growth. farmers struggling to achieve land ownership. Other Taxes and Monopolies The Spaniards also levied indirect taxes, The evolution of taxation in the Philippines is particularly on trade. Customs duties on imports intricately tied to its colonial history, particularly and exports were important revenue sources, under Spanish rule. The development of the tax especially after the Manila-Acapulco galleon system in the Philippines can be divided into trade began in the 16th century. Taxes on several key phases during the Spanish colonial monopolies, such as the sale of tobacco, opium, period. and alcohol, further contributed to government revenue. The tobacco monopoly, initiated in Early Taxation under Spanish Rule 1781, became one of the most lucrative, helping Before Spanish colonization, the Filipino the colony generate a surplus of income. communities practiced a subsistence economy. Forced Labor System (Polo y Servicio) While early taxes existed in the form of tribute or labor, they were not structured in the modern A significant aspect of Spanish colonial taxation sense. When the Spaniards arrived, they was the polo y servicio, a forced labor system introduced a formal taxation system known as that required Filipino men to work for the tributo (tribute), which was aimed at raising government without pay. They were expected to funds to support the colonial government, serve in public works, such as road construction including the salaries of officials and the clergy. and shipbuilding. Initially, they were required to The Spanish struggled with the scattered nature work for up to 40 days annually, but this was of settlements and responded by creating later reduced to 15 days in 1884. The labor pueblos (towns) where Filipinos were settled system was highly exploitative and contributed and assigned land to work. Encomenderos to a high mortality rate and social unrest. Some (Spanish land grant holders) were responsible workers could opt out by paying a fee, although for administering these settlements, and they this system was rife with corruption, as local received rewards for their services. officials often pocketed the payments. Taxation Reforms in the 19th Century Economic Burdens on Filipinos By the late 19th century, Spanish economic and Taxation during the Spanish colonial period was administrative policies, including the cedula heavy, especially for the poor. Local officials, personal (a personal tax certificate) introduced such as the principales (former datus and local in 1884, changed the nature of taxation. The elites), were responsible for tax collection and cédula replaced the tributo and was required of often abused their power, enriching themselves every adult Filipino, including both the wealthy at the expense of peasants. This system created and the poor. The payment of cédulas was a stark contrast between the wealthy, who paid progressive, based on income, but the system fewer taxes, and the poor, who bore the brunt of favored the wealthy, as they could afford the tax the taxation system. In the late 19th century, Mariano Herbosa, in a letter to Jose Rizal, revenue. In response, new taxes were described the rampant corruption in the tax introduced. system, highlighting how land taxes were 1914: The income tax was introduced, arbitrary and unfairly applied, further followed by an inheritance tax in 1919 exacerbating the misery of the common people. and a national lottery in 1932. These Key Dates: measures were insufficient to increase government revenue. 1565: Beginning of Spanish colonization and introduction of tribute (tributo). 2. Taxation During the Commonwealth Period (1935–1942): 1781-1882: Tobacco monopoly. 1936: Income tax rates were increased, 1820: The subsidy from Mexico (situado with surtaxes on incomes over 10,000 real) to the Philippines stopped after pesos. Mexico's independence. 1937: The cédula tax was abolished, and 1884: Introduction of the cedula a residence tax was imposed. personal and reduction of forced labor under the polo y servicio system to 15 1939: The National Internal Revenue days. Code introduced progressive tax rates, reduced exemptions, increased Taxation Under the Americans (1898–1942): corporation taxes, and added taxes on The Americans aimed to make the luxury goods. Philippine economy self-sufficient with Despite these reforms, the tax system minimal revenue. remained inequitable, burdening the 1898-1903: The U.S. followed the lower classes while benefiting the elites. outdated Spanish tax system with 3. Japanese Occupation (1942–1945): modifications. The system introduced a land tax on urban and rural properties. The Japanese continued the tax system The tax system faced problems such as of the Commonwealth but exempted their disorganized land titling, political military. influence, and tax evasion, especially Main taxes came from business licenses, among elites. amusements, and manufactured goods. 1904: The Internal Revenue Law was The war severely disrupted tax collection, enacted, introducing 10 major tax and the government relied on sales of sources, including taxes on alcohol, sweepstakes and government bonds. tobacco, insurance, mining, and 4. Fiscal Policy from 1946 to Present: business licenses. Post-WWII, the Philippines faced 1907: Provinces could double the cédula economic devastation. Despite tax (a head tax) for road maintenance. independence, the U.S. remained 1913: The Underwood-Simmons Tariff influential, and tax reform was needed Act removed export taxes on sugar, but initially ignored. tobacco, hemp, and copra, reducing 1949: The Philippines faced a financial crisis with a lack of funds in key sectors.  U.S. advisors suggested adopting direct The Expanded VAT (E-VAT) law was taxes. signed in 2005, expanding the tax base to include energy products and services. President Elpidio Quirino (1948–1953): His administration implemented import 9. Estrada Administration (1998–2001): controls and tax increases, leading to a Estrada's term was marked by fiscal twofold increase in tax revenue by 1953. instability and large deficits due to 5. Post-War Reforms (1950s–1960s): inadequate tax collection. 1959: The Tax Commission was created 10. Arroyo Administration (2001–2010): to overhaul the tax system but no major 2005: The Expanded VAT law was changes were made until 1969, when the passed, increasing the VAT rate from Omnibus Tax Law was enacted. Despite 10% to 12%. This aimed to increase efforts, the tax system remained revenue and reduce fiscal deficits. regressive, with a large reliance on indirect taxes. 11. Aquino III Administration (2010–2016): 6. Marcos Regime (1965–1986): The Sin Tax Reform (2012) increased excise taxes on alcohol and tobacco, The tax system remained regressive, improving government revenues and with indirect taxes making up 70% of total contributing to health initiatives. revenue by the 1980s. The Tax Reform for Acceleration and 1981–1985: Tax collection and reforms Inclusion (TRAIN) was proposed to remained inefficient, and corruption lower income tax rates, and reform VAT worsened. exemptions, aiming to foster economic 7. Aquino Administration (1986–1992): growth while providing additional revenues. 1986: The Tax Reform Program aimed to improve the tax system by promoting 12. Duterte Administration (2016–Present): equity, growth, and simplified The Duterte administration introduced administration. reforms to improve income tax rates, 1988: The Value-Added Tax (VAT) law increase excise taxes, and reduce VAT was enacted, simplifying the tax system, exemptions. These reforms aimed at though its reliability decreased over time improving economic development and due to exemptions. addressing inequalities in tax burdens. Reforms led to higher tax revenues, and the Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR) became more efficient. 8. Ramos Administration (1992–1998): 1997: The Comprehensive Tax Reform Program was implemented, broadening the VAT base and rationalizing tax incentives. However, VAT exemptions were restored for cooperatives.  and broadcasting stations are also useful for Chapter 5 researching contemporary history. Doing History: A Research in Libraries and Archives: Guide for Students Researching in libraries and archives is a crucial part of historical scholarship. These institutions house primary and secondary sources that help This chapter discusses the importance of in creating accurate historical narratives. actively contributing to the nation’s historical Although many primary sources are now narrative, emphasizing how individuals can help available online, a vast majority of materials are shape this narrative by researching and writing still not digitized, making libraries and archives about history. It focuses on applying skills essential for comprehensive research. Modern learned in previous chapters to write history, libraries have moved away from physical card with special attention to various research catalogs and now use Online Public Access methods: online research, library and archival Catalogs (OPAC), allowing for easier access to research, biographies and life histories, and library holdings. However, refined search local/oral history. Additionally, it discusses the strategies are often necessary to navigate these value of interacting with history through visits to databases effectively. historical shrines and museums to enhance the understanding of past events. Key libraries in the Philippines, such as the National Library in Manila, offer valuable Historical Research Online: resources for students interested in Philippine history. The Filipiniana section at the National The internet is highlighted as an essential tool Library and the Rizaliana collection are for historical research, providing vast amounts particularly useful for historical research. of information that can be accessed quickly. Students should not limit themselves to books However, due to the abundance of data but also consider using other formats like maps, available, students need to be cautious when journals, and microfilm versions of old materials. gathering information online, especially to avoid plagiarism. Search engines like Google and Archives, like the National Archives of the Yahoo are effective for finding sources, and Philippines, provide primary sources crucial for refining search strings—specific combinations studying periods like Spanish colonialism. of words that generate precise results—is However, the materials may be in the original important for successful research. Google language and could be difficult for modern Scholar is recommended for accessing students to access without assistance. Other scholarly articles, while Google Books can help notable academic libraries, such as those at the identify useful books before physically visiting a University of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila library. Although Wikipedia is not considered a University, and University of Santo Tomas, reliable source for academic research, it can contain rich collections related to various serve as a useful starting point for gathering an periods in Philippine history. In addition, private overview of a topic. It is advised to explore libraries and institutions, such as the Family citations linked in Wikipedia articles to find more History Center and the Chinben See Memorial credible sources. Library, provide specialized resources on topics like genealogy and Chinese-Filipino history. There are also several websites where students can legally download public domain books, such Life Histories and Biographical Research as Project Gutenberg and the Internet Archive. These platforms contain valuable historical History is often centered on national events and texts, including works related to Philippine collective movements, while the lives of history. Philippine government websites and individuals tend to be secondary. However, the archives from media outlets like newspapers study of individual lives, or life histories, offers valuable insights into how people shape and events. For example, artifacts from World War II contribute to larger societal changes. Life or items associated with Filipino heroes help history is often overlooked, but it is important for visitors connect with the past in a visceral way. understanding how individual actions can Museums and historical sites help people influence the course of history. Exceptional experience history through material culture, individuals, like Jose Rizal, have made making the past more relatable and memorable. significant contributions that impacted entire nations, while ordinary individuals also play roles in shaping their communities and societies. The study of life history should include Indigenous Peoples examining various aspects of an individual’s life—family, education, social affiliations, and of the Philippines even personal relationships. By doing so, we gain a deeper understanding of the forces that The Philippines is home to a diverse range of shaped their actions and contributions. For indigenous groups, known collectively as IP or example, understanding Rizal's hometown of Katutubo. These groups have lived in the Calamba and his family's socioeconomic status archipelago for thousands of years, predating gives context to his education and political the arrival of foreign colonizers. The indigenous views, which shaped his work. peoples are often characterized by their distinct languages, traditions, cultures, and social Local and Oral History systems. Today, these groups are spread across the various islands, particularly in remote Local history focuses on the history of smaller and mountainous regions, and they maintain a geographical units, such as towns or close connection to their ancestral lands. communities, and is often overlooked in favor of national histories. However, it provides a richer, Ethnolinguistic Diversity more nuanced understanding of national history by revealing how local experiences differ from The indigenous peoples of the Philippines the dominant narratives. Local history belong to various ethnolinguistic groups, which challenges the tendency toward extreme are distinct in terms of language, customs, and nationalism by presenting alternative way of life. Among the prominent indigenous interpretations of historical events and offering groups in the country are: perspectives from below, such as those of marginalized communities. Oral history is a key 1. Lumad: This term refers to the methodology in local history, especially when indigenous peoples of Mindanao. It written records are scarce. It relies on the encompasses a variety of groups such as recollections and experiences of individuals, the Manobo, Bagobo, T’boli, and many often from underrepresented groups such as others. The Lumad have their own indigenous peoples or the urban poor. Though distinct languages, and they live in the criticized by positivist historians for its reliance upland areas of Mindanao. on memory, oral history is crucial for 2. Ifugao: Known for their world-famous documenting the histories of these rice terraces, the Ifugao are located in the communities. Cordillera region in Northern Luzon. They have rich cultural traditions related to Interacting with History through Shrines and agriculture and animistic beliefs. Museums 3. Igorot: This group refers to various highland communities in Northern Luzon, Historical shrines and museums offer unique including the Kankanaey, Bontoc, and opportunities to engage with history beyond Ibaloi. They are known for their written sources. These venues provide tangible agricultural skills, weaving traditions, and artifacts that bring history to life, allowing people rich oral literature. to experience and better understand historical  4. Aeta: One of the earliest known losing their land to foreign settlers, commercial indigenous groups, the Aeta (or Agta) live farming, and urbanization. primarily in the lowland forests and mountainous regions of Luzon. They are Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act (IPRA) traditionally hunters and gatherers and are distinguished by their physical The Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act (IPRA), features, such as dark skin and curly hair. officially known as Republic Act No. 8371, was 5. Mangyan: Found in the island of enacted on October 29, 1997, to protect and Mindoro, the Mangyan people are promote the rights of the indigenous peoples of composed of several sub-groups such as the Philippines. The law was a significant the Buhid, Hanunoo, and Tagbanwa. milestone in addressing the historical They are known for their writing system marginalization of indigenous communities and and weaving traditions. ensuring their rights to land, culture, and self- 6. Badjao: Often referred to as "sea determination. gypsies," the Badjao people live along the coastlines of the Sulu Archipelago Objectives of the IPRA and are known for their maritime lifestyle. The primary objectives of the Indigenous These groups are just a few of the many Peoples’ Rights Act are: indigenous communities that inhabit the Philippine archipelago, each with their own 1. Recognition of Indigenous Peoples’ unique cultural heritage, beliefs, and practices. Rights: The IPRA recognizes the inherent rights of indigenous peoples to Traditional Ways of Life their ancestral domains and lands. This includes their right to freely dispose of Indigenous peoples in the Philippines and enjoy their ancestral land, and the traditionally rely on sustainable practices for right to self-governance and self- their livelihood, often based on agriculture, determination. hunting, fishing, and gathering. Their farming 2. Ancestral Domain: The law establishes systems are adapted to the local environment. that indigenous peoples have the right to For instance, the Ifugao's rice terraces are their ancestral domains, which considered a UNESCO World Heritage site, encompass not only land but also demonstrating their advanced techniques in resources like water, forests, and agricultural terraces. minerals within their territories. This is critical for their continued survival and Indigenous communities also follow traditional cultural practices. belief systems that are generally animistic. They 3. Cultural Integrity: The IPRA ensures believe in spirits that inhabit nature—such as that indigenous peoples can freely mountains, rivers, trees, and animals. These practice and preserve their cultural beliefs influence their rituals, festivals, and daily traditions and practices, including their practices. These communities are known for religious beliefs, rituals, and languages. their strong social ties, where family and clan 4. Social Justice and Human Rights: The play an important role, and elders are respected law promotes social justice and equal as the custodians of cultural knowledge. protection by ensuring that indigenous peoples are treated equally under the However, indigenous peoples have faced law, without discrimination. This includes significant challenges, including discrimination, the right to basic services such as loss of ancestral land, and the encroachment of education, healthcare, and housing. modernity. The arrival of colonizers in the 5. Right to Free, Prior, and Informed Philippines significantly affected their traditional Consent (FPIC): One of the most lifestyles, with many indigenous communities important provisions of the IPRA is the requirement for FPIC before any  government or private entity can tasked with implementing the provisions implement projects in indigenous of the IPRA. It oversees the recognition territories, including mining, and protection of indigenous peoples’ infrastructure development, and rights, including the processing of commercial agriculture. This ensures that ancestral domain claims and facilitating indigenous peoples are consulted and consultations. give their consent before any development occurs on their lands. Challenges in the Implementation of the IPRA Key Provisions of the IPRA Despite the progressive nature of the IPRA, its 1. Ancestral Domains and Land: The law implementation has faced numerous acknowledges the ancestral domain of challenges: indigenous peoples as their ancestral lands. These territories can be identified 1. Conflicts over Land Rights: Disputes and claimed through the process of over ancestral domain claims are certificate of ancestral domain title common, especially in areas rich in (CADT). The rights to these lands cannot natural resources. Mining, logging, and be violated or sold to non-indigenous agricultural development often lead to people without their consent. conflicts between indigenous peoples 2. Indigenous Political Structures: The and corporations or the state. IPRA recognizes the customary political 2. Weak Enforcement: While the law systems of indigenous peoples. This grants indigenous peoples rights to their means that traditional leadership lands, enforcement has been weak in structures, such as the datu (leader) and some areas. Indigenous groups continue councils of elders, are legally recognized, to face encroachment from settlers, and indigenous communities can private companies, and government- exercise self-governance. backed development projects. 3. Cultural Rights: The IPRA guarantees 3. Cultural Erosion: While the law the preservation and enrichment of promotes the preservation of cultural indigenous cultures. It encourages the practices, modernity, education, and the creation of cultural centers and the use of influence of mainstream society have led indigenous languages and traditions. It to cultural erosion in some communities, also ensures that indigenous peoples with younger generations increasingly can practice their religions and abandoning traditional ways of life. ceremonies. 4. Marginalization and Poverty: Despite 4. Economic and Social Rights: The IPRA the legal recognition of their rights, many ensures that indigenous peoples are indigenous peoples remain marginalized provided with the basic social services, and live in poverty. Lack of access to including education, healthcare, and quality healthcare, education, and livelihood opportunities, and that they are employment opportunities continues to able to develop their communities in a affect many indigenous communities. manner consistent with their customs. 5. Displacement: Indigenous communities 5. Protection from Discrimination: The are often displaced due to large law aims to eliminate discrimination infrastructure projects or natural resource against indigenous peoples and protect extraction, leading to loss of livelihood, their rights in the face of encroaching culture, and identity. development projects, such as mining, dam construction, or land conversion. The Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act 6. Creation of the National Commission (IPRA) represents a landmark legislation on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP): The that recognizes and seeks to protect the NCIP is the primary government agency rights of indigenous peoples in the Philippines. However, its full implementation remains a challenge, and the indigenous peoples continue to face struggles related to land rights, cultural preservation, and social justice. Strengthening the enforcement of IPRA and ensuring the participation of indigenous communities in decision- making processes are essential for their continued empowerment and well-being.