Philosophy Study Guide PDF

- Credits kay Asia sa first part, tysm! - He thought that no one knowingly does wrong – people do wrong because they are ignorant Philosophy - A systematic study of fundamental...

- Credits kay Asia sa first part, tysm! - He thought that no one knowingly does wrong – people do wrong because they are ignorant Philosophy - A systematic study of fundamental of what is truly good. questions concerning existence, knowledge, values, - For Socrates, ethical behavior comes from reason, mind, and language knowledge and wisdom (insights). Branch of Philosophy - He also introduced the idea that one should act according to reason rather than simply 1. Metaphysics following social norms - select basic criteria for determining what sort of things are real. 2. Plato 2. Epistemology - He wrote about perfect ideas or “forms,” - concerns the nature and scope of knowledge which are perfect versions of things we see in (Idea of Knowledge) the world. 3. Ethics o the perfect idea of “justice” exists - takes up the meaning of our moral concepts, beyond any specific laws we have. such as right action, obligation, and justice, - He believed that a just person is someone and formulates principles to guide moral whose soul is in harmony, with reason ruling decisions. over spirit (emotions) and appetite (desires) 4. Aesthetics (Philosophy of Art) - For him, ethical behavior means living - concerns with the nature of art, including the according to reasons and pursuing ideal performing arts, painting, sculpture, and forms, especially the form of Good literature. - Justice is both an individual and societal 5. Logic virtue, where each part (or person) perform its - to provide sound ways to distinguish good proper role. reasoning from bad reasoning 6. Political Philosophy (Political Ideology) 3. Aristotle - concerns with the justification and limits of - He thought that living a good life means government control of individuals, the finding a balance between extremes of meaning of quality before the law, the basis of excess and deficiency economic freedom, and many other o Courage is a balance between problems concerning government. recklessness and cowardice 7. Philosophy of Mind (Psychology) - Aristotle developed a virtue ethics based on - emerged from metaphysical concerns. the idea of the “Golden Mean” – the balance 8. Philosophy of Religion (Theology) between extremes of excess and deficiency - understand the concept of God. o Courage is a virtue, but too much Prominent Figures and Their Tenets courage becomes recklessness, and too little becomes cowardice. 1. Socrates - He believed that ethical behavior is about - Famous for asking deep questions to help developing virtues (good habits) and living in people think accordance with reason, aiming for a state of - He said “I know that I know nothing” showing flourishing (eudaimonia) through balance and his awareness of the limit of his knowledge moderate life. - He believed that living a virtuous life (honorable) life was the key to happiness and ethical behavior 4. Immanuel Kant 6. Ludwig Wittgenstein - He believed that our understanding of the - He explored how the way we use language world is shaped by our own mind, and that affects our understanding of the world moral actions are those done from a sense of o He suggested that meaning of words duty. is found in their use in everyday life. o He thought that lying is always wrong, - He believed that ethics is deeply personal no matter the circumstances. and that moral values cannot be fully - Kant’s ethics are based on the idea of duty captured in language and “categorical imperative” - He saw ethics as something beyond what can o Act as you would want all other be expressed in words, making it a matter of people to act towards all other people personal practice and life choices. or act as if it were a universal law. - He believed that ethical behavior means 7. Simone de Beauvoir acting according to universal moral laws that - She is known for her work on gender and apply to everyone. existentialism. - Ethical behavior is not about pursuing - In “The Second Sex” she argued that women happiness but about doing what is right for its have been historically oppressed and need to own sake, based on rational principles. break free from societal limitations - She argued that ethical behavior involves 5. Friedrich Nietzsche acknowledging the freedom of others and - He challenged traditional moral and working to ensure that everyone can exercise proposed the idea of the “Übermensch” or their freedom authentically “Overman,” who creates their own values - She believed that individuals are responsible rather than following societal norms. for creating their own values and ethics - Famously said, “God is dead” to express and involves string for liberation and equality, decline of traditional religious and moral especially in the context of gender and social values. oppression - Nietzsche promoted the idea of “master - She emphasized the importance of morality,” where individuals create their own recognizing and supporting the autonomy values based on strength, power and (independence) of others. creativity (over Christianity and ethics of the weak calling it “slave morality”) - He believed that ethical behavior should come from the will to power (by asserting oneself and overcoming limitations, creating new values rather than following conventional ones) Ethics and its Key Concepts Modern Ethics - Immanuel Kant emphasized “deontological” Ethics ethics, based on duty and moral rules. - A branch of philosophy that studies morality, - Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, values, and rules of conduct. It examines developed the “utilitarianism” focused on right and wrong, good and evil, just and consequences of actions, advocating for the unjust. greatest happiness for the greatest number. - We study ethics not just to understand what success or happiness looks like, but to Contemporary Ethics (20th and 21st centuries) understand what makes our actions good or - Ethical thought expanded to include issues of bad social justice, human rights, environmental - Ethics is always there at the core ethics and bioethics. - John Rawls contributed to political ethics. Ethics: Montemayor’s Definition - Peter Singer focused on animal rights and - It is the study of human action’s morality global poverty. - It studies human actions in terms of right and wrong. Ethics: Sources - It is the study of moral principles These sources often overlaps, and sometimes they conflict. - It is the study of human conduct - It is the moral study of human conduct Philosophy - It is the science that defines right living Religion - Is the science that guides our actions so we Culture can live righteously Law - In short, ethics is a science that studies Experience human behavior and sets standards for Ethics: Nature natural integrity and honesty. Normative Ethics: A Brief History - It deals with standards of right and wrong and Ancient Ethics prescribes how people should act. - Socrates who emphasized the importance of self-examination and virtue. Universal vs Relative - Plato introduced the concept of ideal forms - Some ethical theories propose that moral (purpose). principles are universal and apply to everyone - Aristotle developed a virtue-based ethics that - While others suggest that ethics is relative to focused on achieving happiness through cultural or individual perspectives. moral excellence. - “Universal ethics can promote fairness and equality, while relative ethics can respect Medieval Ethics cultural differences.” - Christian, Islamic, and Jewish philosophers integrated ethical concepts with religious Objective vs Subjective doctrines. - Debates in ethics often revolve around - Thomas Aquinas, combined Aristotelian whether moral truths are objective ethics with Christian theology, emphasizing (independent of human opinions) natural laws. - Or subjective (dependent on personal or societal views). Ethics: Main Divisions ❖ Critics argue that not all pleasure are inherently good and can lead to selfishness if Normative Ethics pursued without considering the well-being of - It explores the principles and rules that guide others. behavior. 2. Utilitarianism - It includes: - Developed by philosophers like Jeremy o Deontological ethics (duty-based) Bentham and John Stuart Mill o Consequentialism (outcome-based) - They defined “good” as the greatest o Virtue ethics (character-based) happiness for the greatest number of people. Meta-Ethics - The focus is on maximizing overall well-being, - It investigates the nature of morality itself, not just personal pleasure. asking questions like “What is goodness?” o Government that allocates resources and “Are moral judgements objective or to improve public healthcare, which subjective?” benefits a large number of people Applied Ethics thus, the increase in happiness - It deals with specific moral issues in various makes the action good. fields, such as medical ethics, environmental ❖ Utilitarianism can sometimes justify actions ethics, business ethics, and bioethics. that seems morally wrong If they result in - It applies to ethical principles to real-world greater overall happiness. situations. 3. Duty-Based Ethics (Deontology) Descriptive Ethics - It is most associated with Immanuel Kant, - It is the empirical study of people’s moral defines “good” in terms of following moral beliefs and practices, often used in social rules or duties. sciences like psychology and anthropology. - Actions are good when they are done out of a Ethics and Goodness sense of moral obligation, regardless of the consequences. Ethics is all about trying to figure out how we can o Telling the truth is considered good live good lives and make good choices under deontology, even if it leads to a Moral Goodness negative outcome. - Doing the right thing ❖ Deontological ethics can sometimes seem Instrumental Goodness rigid (hard), as it requires following rules even - Something that is good because it leads to when doing so may lead to harmful or something else that is good undesirable outcomes. 4. Virtue Ethics Intrinsic Goodness - Virtue ethics, championed by Aristotle, - Something that is good on its own. defines “good” as developing good character Various Ideas of “Good” traits, or virtues, like courage, kindness, and honesty. 1. Hedonism - Being good means cultivating these virtues - Defines “good” as a pleasure or happiness. and living a balanced, flourishing life - According to this view, the best action is the o A virtuous person might act one that maximizes personal enjoyment or courageously by standing up for a minimizes pain. friend who is being bullied, not o Eating cake as it brings them pleasure because of a rule or to maximize o Activities like relaxation, happiness, but because courage is a entertainment, and other pleasures. central part of being a good person. ❖ Critics argue that virtue ethics can be vague, choices and acts authentically, rather as it doesn’t provide clear rules for action. than following external rules or 5. Religious Ethics societal expectations. - Divine Command Theory defines “good” as ❖ Existentialism can be seen as too subjective, that which is commanded by God or the leading to a lack of clear guidelines for moral divine. behavior. - Actions are morally good if they align with ❖ It also places a burden on individuals to divine will or religious teachings. create their own meaning and ethics in a o In Christianity, the commandment to world that may seem indifferent or absurd. “love thy neighbor” is considered 8. Humanism good because it is believed to be a - It emphasizes the value and dignity of all command from God. human beings. ❖ Critics of Divine Command Theory argue that - Defines “good” in terms of promoting human it can be difficult to determine what exactly welfare and flourishing. the divine will is, especially when different - Humanist ethics focus on reason, empathy, religions offer conflicting teachings. and compassion as guides for moral action. 6. Moral Relativism o Advocating for human rights is - Moral relativism suggests that “good” is considered good in humanism relative to the cultural, social, or individual because it promotes the well-being context. and dignity of all people. - There is no absolute standard of goodness; ❖ Humanism is sometimes criticized for being rather, what is considered good varies across overly idealistic, as it assumes that reason different societies or individuals. and empathy can guide us to the right moral o In one culture, it might be considered conclusions. to prioritize community welfare over Plato’s Idea of Good individual freedom, while in another - Just as the sun gives light so we can see, culture, individual right might be The Good gives us the truth so we can seem as more important. understand what is right. o Both can be seen as good within their Aristotle’s Idea of Good respective cultural contexts. - The good is about living in a balanced way ❖ Moral relativism can lead to challenges in Goodness is found in being the best version addressing ethical conflicts between cultures of yourself (eudemonia) 7. Existentialism Practice: courage, honesty, and kindness, - Existentialism philosophers like Jean-Paul and finding balance in our actions. Satre and Simone de Beauvoir The Good in Us - They both argued that life doesn’t come with inherent meaning or goodness. Plato – The good in us is our ability to seek - Instead, individuals must create their own truth and justice sense of good through authentic choices and Aristotle – The good in us is our potential to actions. o If someone chooses to dedicate their develop good habits and live a balanced life life to helping others, they are creating Modern Thinkers – The good in us is our their own concept of what is good ability to make choices that helps others and through their actions make the world a better place o For existentialist, the key is that the person takes responsibility for their