Revision Notes: Harappan Civilization PDF

PART - I CHAPTER-1 BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES (THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION) Period of the Civilisation and Subsistence Strate- Topic-1 gies Revision Notes Indus Valley Ci...

PART - I CHAPTER-1 BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES (THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION) Period of the Civilisation and Subsistence Strate- Topic-1 gies Revision Notes Indus Valley Civilisation was divided into three different periods–Early Harappan Culture, Mature Harappan Culture and Late Harappan Culture. Archaeological evidence includes houses, pots, ornaments, tools, seals, stones, weights, Great Bath, figurines, beads, baked bricks, etc. Features of Early Harappan Culture : There are evidences of agriculture and pastoralism. Settlements were generally small, and there were virtually no large buildings. There is evidence of large-scale burning at some sites as well as abandonment of settlements. Features of Mature Harappan Culture : The Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan Culture. These cultures were associated with distinctive pottery, there are evidences of agriculture and pastoralism, and some crafts. Some important sites include Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Banawali, Kalibangan, Rakhi Garhi, Lothal, Chanhudaro, Kot Diji, Sutkagendor, etc. According to archaeo-botanists, the diet of Harappans included plants and animal products, as well as fish. Grains found at the sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and millets. According to archaeo-zoologists, animals like cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig were domesticated. Bones of animals like boar, deer, ‘gharial’ have been found but they might have been hunted by Harappans or exchanged with other hunting communities. Method of sowing seeds is not clear. Terracotta pictures of bull on seals and terracotta sculptures indicate probable use of bull and oxen for ploughing. Models of plough found at Cholistan and Banawali suggest the use of plough and a ploughed field found in Kalibangan with two sets of furrows at right angles suggest simultaneous growth of multiple crops. Archaeologists have tried to identify the tools for harvesting – whether stone blades were used with wooden handles or metal tools were used. Most of the sites could be found in semi-arid regions indicating the practice of irrigation. Traces of canals have been found only in Shortughai in Afghanistan. Wells were also used for irrigation and water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) suggest storage of water for irrigation. Example 1 Explain the exclusive features of the craft Step III: The shapes were many–disc-shaped, production in Chanhudaro. cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped and segmented. Ans. Step IV: Some were decorated by incising or Step I: Chanhudaro, a tiny settlement of less than painting and some had designs etched on them. 7 hectares, was devoted to craft production. It Specialised drills were found in Lothal, Chanhudaro was known for bead making, shell-cutting, metal- and Dholavira. making and weight-making. Step V: Techniques for making beads differed Step II: The materials used to make beads were according to the material. Steatite was mostly used, stones like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz and as it is a very soft stone. steatite and metals like gold, bronze and copper, Step VI: It was likely that finished products (beads) faience and terracotta or burnt clay. Some beads from Chanhudaro were taken to the large urban were made of two or more stones, cemented centers such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa. together with gold caps. 2 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII Topic-2 Mohenjodaro – A Planned Urban Centre Revision Notes The first site discovered was Harappa although Mohenjodaro is the most well-known site. The most unique feature of the Harappan civilisation was the development of urban centres. Cities were uniform in planning and construction. Mohenjodaro was a large city and was divided into two sections. These were the Citadel and the Lower Town. The Citadel was built on high platforms of mud bricks, consisted of large buildings and was surrounded by a wall separating it from Lower Town. Lower Town was much larger and was a residential town. Many buildings were built on a high platform. It appears that the settlement was planned and all the building activity within the city was restricted to a fixed area on the platforms. Mud bricks were uniform and had the same length, height and width. Another distinctive feature of Harappan cities was the drainage system. The roads and streets were in grid pattern, intersecting at right angles. It looked as if the streets were laid first and then the houses were built so that the domestic water from every house can flow into the street drains. Lower Town gives information about the types of residential buildings. Most houses had a courtyard in the centre, where all activities like cooking and weaving were probably carried out during hot weather. There were no windows on ground level and the main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior. This gives a clear evidence of the Harappans’ concern for privacy. Every house had its own bathroom, staircase and a well. Citadel was used for public purposes. It included a warehouse and a Great Bath. The Great Bath was a walled water tank probably used for a special ritual bath. Archaeologists generally use various strategies like studying burials to find the social and economic differences. Some evidence of burials has also been found in Harappa. The dead were generally laid in pits which also contained pottery and ornaments indicating a belief in afterlife or life after death. However, in general, Harappans did not bury precious things with the dead. Another strategy to identify the social differences is to study artefacts classified as utility and luxury. Daily-use objects categorised under utility items included needles, pottery, quern stones, etc. Luxury objects were rare and made of costly/ non-local material – pots of faience, etc. Topic-3 Trade, Commerce and Politics Revision Notes The Harappans were gifted with a great talent in craft production. Chanhudaro settlement was devoted to craft productions using variety of materials. Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and Dholavira. Archaeologists usually identify the centres of craft production by the presence of raw material such as stone nodules, shells, copper ore, tools, rejected and waste materials. Though tools and implements were made of stone, the Harappans were aware of gold, silver, copper, lead and bronze. Ornament-making was a noteworthy occupation of the Harappans. A large number of Harappans were engaged in this craft at Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro and Lothal. Variety of precious stones like carnelian and jasper, metals like gold, copper, bronze and shells, faience, terracotta or burnt clay were used to make beads.  Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII 3 The shell objects were made at the coastal settlements like Nageshwar and Balakot, and finished products taken to urban centres such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa. Harappan culture acquired materials for craft production from various parts of sub-continents as mentioned below : Copper from Rajasthan (Khetri) Steatite from Gujarat and Rajasthan Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan (Shortugai) Gold from South India. In Harappan Civilization, communication with distant lands such as Oman, Bahrain and Mesopotamia was done via sea. A terracotta model of a ship was found at Lothal, indicating that external trade was carried out using ships and boats. Small and heavy weights plus metal scale pans had been found. Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long-distance communication. The Harappan script remains undeciphered till date. It was not alphabetical, instead it was made up of many signs. Some archaeologists stated that Harappan society had no ruler, and everybody enjoyed equal status. Some archaeologists feel that there was no single ruler, other historians feel that there was a single ruler, given the similarity in artefacts, evidence of planned settlements, standardised brick size, establishment of settlements near source of material. Hence, the last theory seems plausible. Topic-4 End and Discovery of the Civilization Revision Notes There exists evidence that by 1800 BCE, most of the Mature Harappan sites that were excavated had been abandoned. There was expansion of population into new regions of Gujarat, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh. There was a material cultural transformation in Harappan sites occupied after 1900 BCE in weights, seals, writings, trade and craft. These were termed as Late Harappan or Successor Cultures. Climate change, excessive floods, shifting or drying of rivers, deforestation were some of the reasons for the decline of the civilisation. John Marshall was the Director-General of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) who certified discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus valley. A Harappan seal was given to Cunningham, the first Director-General of the ASI, who began excavation in the mid-nineteenth century. Daya Ram Sahni and Rakhal Das Banerji were the two archaeologists who contributed extensively in the discoveries of the Indus Valley civilisation. R.E.M. Wheeler was a British archaeologist who introduced a military precision in the practice of archaeology and the use of scientific methods in archaeology. Archaeologists try to reconstruct the Harappan history with material evidence like tools, pottery, ornaments, house-hold objects, etc. The problems of archaeological interpretation are most evident in reconstructing religious practices which include terracotta figurines of women regarded as Mother Goddess; priest king, ritual significance of the Great Bath and fire altars found at some sites. Animal seals like the unicorn, a figure shown cross-legged in a yogic position regarded as Proto-Shiva, some conical stone objects have been classified as lingas. Archeologists have often found and classified discoveries based on their knowledge of present-day objects and religious symbols for example, stone querns and pots, Proto-Shiva symbol, etc. Many important sites of Indus valley civilisation are localised in Pakistan. Indian archaeologists are trying to find new sites and this process is still continuing. After many decades of archaeological work, we have a good idea about the Harappan economy, social differences and how the civilisation functioned. Many questions are still unanswered and whenever the script is deciphered, we may obtain more knowledge about the civilisation. The discovery of this civilisation is of great significance in the Indian history as it has placed Indian civilisation to some 3000 years earlier in history, making India one of the ancient countries. 4 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII Key Words Culture – The term used by archaeologists for a group of objects distinctive in style, usually found together within a specific geographical area and period of time Steatite – a soft stone that was very easy to craft and work with, used by Harappans for making seals and beads Gharial – Fish-eating crocodile Furrows – A narrow groove made in the ground especially by a plough Saddle Querns – Stone tools for grinding food, also called quern stones Analogy – Similarities/comparison Grid – Network of lines/streets intersecting at right angles Isometric – of or having equal dimensions Hoards – Objects kept carefully inside a container Faience – Material made of ground sand or silica mixed with colour and gum and fired in a kiln Nodules – Small pieces Minuscule – Tiny Riverine route – An inland or coastal area comprising both land and water Magan – Oman Chert – Hard, dark, opaque rock composed of silica, used by Harappans for making weights Pur – Rigvedic word for Fort, Rampart Dilmun – Island of Bahrain Stratigraphy – Analysis of the order and position of layers of archaeological remains Kiln – Furnace for baking clay Unicorn – One-horned animal Shaman – Person who claims magical powers. Key Dates Before 2600 BCE – Early Harappan culture 2600 BCE–1900 BCE – Mature Harappan culture 1900 BCE–1300 BCE – Later Harappan culture 1875 CE – Alexander Cunningham submitted report on Harappan seal 1921 CE – Excavation began at Harappa by M. S. Vats 1922 CE – Excavation began at Mohenjodaro 1924 CE – Marshall’s announcement came after Mohenjodaro was discovered 1946 CE – Excavation at Harappa by R. E. M. Wheeler 1955 CE – Excavation began at Lothal by S. R. Rao 1960 CE – Excavation began at Kalibangan by B. B. Lal and B. K. Thapar 1974 CE – Explorations began at Bahawalpur by M. R. Mughal 1980 CE – Surface explorations began at Mohenjodaro by German and Italian archaeologists 1986 CE – Excavation at Harappa began by an American team 1990 CE – Excavations began at Dholavira by R. S. Bisht Key Personalities Alexander Cunningham – First Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 1875. Ernest John Henry Mackay – Archeologist from Bristol known for his excavation and studies of Mohenjodaro and other sites of Indus Valley civilisation.  Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII 5 CHAPTER-2 KINGS, FARMERS AND TOWNS: EARLY STATES AND ECONOMIES The Early States - Empires and the New Notions of Topic-1 Kingship Revision Notes Several developments took place in different parts of the subcontinent in 1,500 years following the end of the Harappan civilisation. During this period, Rigveda was composed by people living along the Indus and its tributaries. Agricultural settlements emerged in several parts of the subcontinent. New modes of disposing the dead, including the making of elaborate stone structures known as megaliths, emerged in Central and South India from the first millennium BCE. 600 BCE was the major turning point in early Indian history. The sources helpful in understanding the Indian history from the period 600 BCE to 600 CE can be classified into two divisions – the literary sources and the archaeological sources. Archaeological sources, especially the inscriptions and coins, occupy a very significant place in the reconstruction of the ancient Indian history. During 1830s, James Prinsep – an officer in the mint of the East India Company — deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, scripts which helped in an innovative way to learn about the lineage of major dynasties of the subcontinent. The sixth century BCE was the period associated with early states, cities, growing use of iron, coinage, etc. Growth of Buddhism was also witnessed during this period. Several Buddhists in Jaina texts mention 16 Mahajanpadas or states. Several of these such as Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti were frequently mentioned as being ruled by kings. Magadha emerged as the most powerful Mahajanapada between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE. Some known sanghas or ganas were oligarchies, where power was shared by a number of men often collectively called Rajas. Brahmanas composed Sanskrit texts known as Dharmasutras which laid down norms for rulers who were ideally expected to be Kshatriyas. Historians have used many sources to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire. These include sculpture, account of Megasthenes, Chanakya’s Arthashastra, Jaina and Buddhist texts and Sanskrit texts. Asoka was the first ruler who inscribed his messages on rocks and polished pillars. There were five major political centres in the Mauryan empire – capital Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali and Suvarnagiri – mentioned in Asokan inscriptions. The message on Asokan Inscriptions is virtually the same – from the present-day North West Frontier Provinces of Pakistan, to Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Uttarakhand in India. Historian felt it unlikely as the empire was too vast. Communication along both river and land routes was vital for the empire. Asoka, a powerful and humble ruler, was the inspiration of the 20th century’s nationalist leaders. 200 BCE saw emergence of new chiefdoms and kingdoms in several parts of the subcontinent. The early Sangam text contains poems describing chiefdoms of Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in the south and the ways in which the resources were acquired and distributed. Most of these states, including Satavahanas and Shakas, had control over long distance trade networks. Kushanas (first century BCE to first century CE) ruled over a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to North-west India. The sources of information include inscriptions, coins and sculptures which convey a notion of Kingship. The information about the Guptas (4th century CE) has been reconstructed from literature, coins and inscriptions including prashastis composed in praise of kings and patrons by poets. The Prayaga Prashasti (known as Allahabad Pillar Inscription) was composed in Sanskrit by Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta and was inarguably the most powerful of the Gupta rulers. 6 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII Example 1 Historians used a variety of sources of the Mauryan financial management, by Kautilya/Chanakya, the Empire. State a few of these sources. Chief Minister of the Mauryan Empire, gives us a Ans. detailed description about the financial stakes of the Step I: Mauryan Empire was established by Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BCE. There are many Step IV: Asokan inscriptions that mention a sources that help us reconstruct its history. policy called Ashoka Dhamma which was issued Step II: The report of Megasthenes who was an by a Mauryan king Ashoka, is a good source to Ambassador of Greece had written a book called understand the political policies. It had ethics “Indica” in which he had recorded the information related messages like respecting elders, respecting about the Mauryan Empire. Detailed record of Brahmans, serving the poor. administration and army of the region was also Step V: Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature as there in this book. well as Sanskrit literary works mention the Mauryan Step III: Arthashastra, which literally means Empire. Topic-2 Changing Countryside and the New Cities Revision Notes Historians had tried to gather more information about the rulers and their subjects through the stories such as Jatakas and Panchatantra. Many of these stories were initially oral tales and later were committed to writing. The Jatakas were written in Pali around the middle of the 1st millennium CE. A story known as Gandatindu Jataka tells about the deplorable conditions of the subjects and the strained relationship between the king and the rural population. Peasants were heavily taxed and in order to escape from this situation, people sometimes abandoned their village and went to live in the forest. Many measures were taken to increase the agricultural production—use of plough with iron-tipped ploughshare, introduction of transplantation and use of wells, tanks and less commonly, canals for irrigation. Increase in production led to differentiation among people engaged in agriculture. Buddhist and Sangam texts mention different categories of people living in villages–large landowners, ploughmen and slaves and it is likely that these differences were based on differential access to land for agriculture. Evidences of land grants were found from inscriptions. These grants were given to Brahmanas and religious institutions by kings or landlords. It was also given to extend agriculture to new areas or to win allies by making grants of land. Some historians feel that land grants were indicative of weakening political power; as kings were losing control, they tried to win allies by making grants of land. Kings sometimes also tried to project themselves as supermen. They wanted people to believe that they were in control, they wanted to project a facade of power. Emergence of urban centres like Pataliputra, Ujjain, Puhar, Mathura, etc. took place. In towns, there were people with different set of occupations like weavers, carpenters, potters, merchants, scribes, etc. From 6th century BCE, land and river routes were found in many parts of the subcontinent and also as far as Africa (East and North), West Asia and China. India exported spices, fine pearls, silk cloth, ivory, medicinal plants, etc. Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of the coinage. Punch marked coins made of silver and copper were amongst the earliest to be minted and used. The first gold coin was issued by the Kushanas in the first century CE.  Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII 7 The first coins with engraved names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, who established control over the north-western part of the subcontinent around 2nd century BCE. Coins were also issued by tribal republics like Yaudheyas of Punjab and Haryana. From 6th century CE, finds of gold coins taper off. Historical Evidence from Inscriptions and the Topic-3 Limitations of the Inscriptions Revision Notes Most scripts used to write modern Indian languages are derived from Brahmi, which was the script used in most Asokan inscriptions. The European scholars, with the help of Indian Pandits, started studying several manuscripts in modern Bengali and Devanagari from the late 16th century and compared their letters with old specimens. Prinsep found that there is a mention of a king referred to as Piyadassi meaning “Pleasant to behold” on most of the earliest inscriptions and coins. The name Asoka is mentioned in some other inscriptions which also contain these titles. The deciphering of the Brahmi script by Prinsep provided a new direction of knowledge into early Indian political history. There were connections between political, economic and social developments but they were not direct. The coins of Indo-Greek kings who ruled in the north-west helped in deciphering the Kharosthi script. The names of the kings were written in Greek and Kharosthi. With Prinsep identifying the language of the Kharosthi inscriptions as Prakrit, it became possible to read it as well. The epigraphists investigate the inscriptions as per content, style, language in order to find the historical evidence. Where there were similarities, it is concluded that all these inscriptions were issued by the same king. Epigraphists constantly assess the inscriptions for historical evidence. In some cases, it may be exaggerated; hence they have to assess whether it is true or exaggerated. Another limitation was that king Ashoka normally inscribed his orders on natural rocks along the communication route only and not inside towns or villages city. It is difficult to know whether most of the people were literate and passers-by halted to read these inscriptions. The usage of words in inscriptions was not easy to understand. Sometimes, the inscriptions were so faintly engraved that they were not easily visible. Some letters were missing or damaged. There were no inscriptions in relation with the views of the common man. Routine agricultural practices as well as joys and sorrows of the common man were not mentioned. Moreover, the content of the inscriptions project the views of the commissioning person. Though epigraphy was instrumental in understanding the histories of kings, study of inscriptions cannot provide a complete understanding of the political and economic history of ancient India. Key Words Megaliths – A large prehistoric stone that has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. Epigraphy – Study of inscriptions Contour – Broad outline Incipient – Beginning to happen or develop Janapada – The realms, republics and kingdoms of the Vedic period on the Indian subcontinent. 8 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII Palaeography – The study of ancient writing systems and the deciphering and dating of historical manuscripts. Oligarchy – Form of government where power is exercised by a group of men. Arthashastra – Ancient work dealing with the art of governance composed by Kautilya (also called Chanakya, the Chief Minister of Chandragupta Maurya) Grandiose – Extravagant/grand titles Obscure – Uncertain/not known Colossal – Great in size Deva putra – Son of God Prashastis – In praise of (Sanskrit) Prayaga Prashasti – Allahabad Pillar Inscription, composed by the court poet of Samudragupta, Harisena. Transplantation – Seeds are first broadcast, when the saplings have grown they are transplanted in water logged fields. Vellalar – Large landowners of the Tamil caste. Uzhavar – Ploughmen Adimai – Slaves Gahapati – Owner, master or head of the household (also used to refer to large landowners, wealthy merchants and urban elite). Agrahara – A Brahmana who was granted a land by the king and was exempted from paying state taxes. Votive inscriptions – Record of gifts made to religious institutions. Seafarers – Someone who works or travels in the ships. Masattuvan – In Tamil - A rich merchant Setthis and Satthavahas – In Prakrit - rich merchants Numismatics – Study of coins Kharosthi – Ancient script used in Gandhara Juxtaposed – Comparison or contrast Key Dates 600 – 500 BCE – Paddy transplantation, Urbanisation in the Ganga valley, Mahajanapadas, punch- marked coins 500 – 400 BCE – Rulers of Magadha consolidated power 327–325 BCE – Invasion of Alexander of Macedonia 321 BCE – Accession of Chandragupta Maurya 272/268 – 231 BCE – Rule of Asoka 185 BCE – End of Mauryan rule c. 200 – 100 BCE – Coming of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas Kingdoms of South India, Indo-Greek rule in Northwest 78 CE – Accession of Kanishka of the Kushanas 319 CE – Beginning of Gupta rule 1784 CE – Founding of the Asiatic Society (Bengal) 1810s CE – Colin Mackenzie collected 8000 inscriptions in Sanskrit and Dravidian languages 1837 CE – Deciphering of Asokan Brahmi 1877 CE – Alexander Cunningham published a set of Asokan inscriptions 1886 CE – First issue of Epigraphia Carnatica, a Journal of South Indian Inscriptions 1888 CE – First issue of Epigraphia Indica 1965-66 CE – D.C. Sircar published Indian Epigraphy and Indian Epigraphical glossary  Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII 9 Key Maps (A) Mahajanapadas and Cities (B) Distribution of Asokan Inscriptions 10 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII (C) Important Kingdoms and Towns CHAPTER-3 KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS (EARLY SOCIETIES) Topic-1 Mahabharata – Many Rules and Varied Practices Revision Notes Historians often use textual traditions to understand the processes of social behaviour, social situations and practices. The Mahabharata is one of the most colossal epics of the sub-continent which has in its present form more than 100,000 verses and depicts a wide range of social categories and situations. The main theme of Mahabharata is about two groups of warring cousins. This epic also contains different sections laying down norms of behaviours for different groups. The central story deals with the family feud of Pandavas and Kauravas. The critical edition of Mahabharata was started in 1919 by V. S. Sukthankar. The team collected Sanskrit manuscripts of Mahabharata and compared each manuscript and after that selected only those verses which were common in most versions of Mahabharata. The critical edition was published in multiple volumes, running over 13,000 pages and took 47 years to complete. Initially, it was believed that actual practices were mentioned in Sanskrit by Brahmans in this epic, but when those in Pali, Prakrit and Tamil were studied, it became clear that ideas contained in Sanskrit text were not always followed and even rejected sometimes. All families are not identical. There are differences in the way they behave with each other. Family is a part of larger networks of people called kinfolk or relatives.  Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII 11 In many cases, family ties are regarded as natural and based on blood but in some families, blood relatives are not regarded as cousins. According to Mahabharata, the patrilineal started after the battle which was fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas. When there were no sons, brothers or some other male relative was considered as the successor. In some cases, even women (e.g. Prabhavati Gupta) exercised power but they mostly belonged to the ruling class. Patriliny was followed by Brahmanas and the ruling class. Women had no claims on their father’s property. Their marriage outside the kin was considered desirable. System of “Kanyadana” was considered very important and it was the most important religious duty of the father. Eight forms of marriage were recognised by the Dharmashastras and Dharmasutras. Four of them were considered good. The last four were followed by those who did not follow Brahmanical texts. When towns were growing, there was greater exchange of ideas among people this led them to question. In 500 BCE, these norms and rules were written down in Sanskrit and were called Dharmashastras and Dharmasutras. The most important of such works was Manusmriti. Brahmanas maintained the power and authority and ensured that rules of marriage and social behaviour should be maintained. In one Brahmanical practice , evident from around 1000 BCE onwards, people were classified in terms of gotras. Each gotra was named after a Vedic seer. Two important rules of gotra were (i) Women were expected to give up their gotra once they get married and adopt their husband’s gotra. (ii) Members of the same gotra could not marry. Evidence of gotra and its practices can be seen in inscriptions of ruling lineage like Satavahanas, where historians can trace family and marriages. Though Satavahana rulers followed metronymics or matronymics (deriving names from the mother’s name), still the patrilineal system of succession was followed. Social Differences: Within and Beyond the Frame- Topic-2 work of Caste Revision Notes Brahmanas claimed that the hierarchical social order laid down in Dharmashastras and Dharmasutras was divine. It placed them at the top and Shudras at the bottom. Positions within the order were determined by birth. Dharmashastras and Dharmasutras also contained rules about the ideal occupations of the four varnas or castes. Brahmanas were supposed to perform sacrifices, study and teach Vedas, give and receive gifts. Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people, study Vedas, get sacrifices performed and make gifts. Vaishyas were to engage in agriculture and trade and Shudras were committed to serve the three ‘higher’ varnas. Brahmanas maintained the varna system by several methods. First, they claimed that it was of divine origin. Secondly, they advised kings to maintain this social division in their kingdom. They persuaded the people that status was determined by birth. According to certain sources, the varna system was challenged. Shastras permitted Kshatriyas alone to become kings but several lineages had non-Kshatriya origins. While Buddhist texts suggest Mauryas were Kshatriyas, Brahmanical texts describe them as of low origin. The Shungas and Kanvas were Brahmanas and they got the authority by gaining power which shows that political power could be taken by anyone who had the strength to hold it. Example: Shaka ruler Rudradaman. Those who spoke non-Sanskrit languages and outsiders such as the Shakas from Central Asia were labelled mlechchhas. Powerful mlechchhas eventually learned Sanskrit and enhanced their status. Satavahana rulers were Brahmanas. They refereed to themselves as destroyers of the pride of Kshatriyas and didn’t allow inter-caste marriages, yet got into marriage alliances with the Shakas, which shows that kings wanted to maintain the purity of four varnas but they never followed these rules. There were only four varnas but several jatis. Whenever a new group that did not belong to the varnas came into contact with the Brahmanas, it was assigned a new jati. Example : Nishadas (forest dwellers), Suvarnakar (goldsmith). 12 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII Sometimes, people of same jati who shared a common profession organised into groups called shrenis or guild. Example goldsmiths or suvarnakaras. There were also some people who did not follow the varna system and jatis. Their social practices were not in- fluenced by Brahmanical ideas. They were described as uncivilised. Those who did not speak Sanskrit language and were also outside the varna system were called mlechchhas. Brahmanas created a sharp social divide by classifying certain social categories as ‘untouchables’. These untouchables performed duties which were regarded as polluting, such as handling corpses, dead animals, etc. and were called chandalas. Manusmriti laid down duties for chandalas: o They lived outside the villages. o Chandalas used discarded utensils, used clothes and iron ornaments. o They could not walk in villages at night. They had to sound a clapper in streets, so that people should keep away. o They also had to dispose of the bodies of those who had no relatives and serve as executioners. Some historians believe that the chandalas opposed this system. Topic-3 Beyond Birth: Resources and Status Revision Notes According to Manusmriti, o Property is to be divided among sons and women could not claim a share. o The women can retain the gifts they received during their marriage as stridhana. This can be inherited by their children. Husbands had no claim on it. o Manusmriti warned women against hoarding their property without husband’s permission. Women in ruling families had access to wealth. For example: Prabhavati Gupta was granted land but such examples were very rare. The difference in the distribution of wealth among men and women created difference in the social status in family as well as society. The occupation of Shudras was servitude to the other three Varnas. They were generally very poor. Brahmanas, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas were rich. Though there are instances of poor Brahmanas as well. In the society, only those rich people were respected who were generous and gave financial help to others. The rich were the patrons of bards, poets, artists, singers, dancers, etc. According to Buddhist sources, there was evidences of wealthy Shudras. Example: Son of Matanga. A wealthy Shudra can live like a rich man, can have servants and people respect him. This shows that economic status determined a person’s status in society. The Buddhist text Sutta Pitaka says that the life of man was simple and his needs were limited, so there was less chance of conflicts. With development, greed to acquire wealth also increased. Hence, it was decided to select a person and give them authority and control over others. The elected person was called Mahasammata and this shows that the idea of leadership was based purely on choice. The king gave protection, security and safety to his people and in return received taxes from and obedience of his people. Because such a system was created by people, could change it whenever needed.  Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII 13 Topic-4 Handling Texts: Historians and The Mahabharata Revision Notes While analysing a text, historians consider many elements: o First, they consider the language of text. When analysing Mahabharata, they examined whether it was written in Prakrit, Pali, Tamil or Sanskrit. If it was in Sanskrit, then it was used by priests and elites. o Secondly, the kind of text—whether it was in story form or in mantras which were chanted by people on special occasions. o Historians try to ascertain the date of creation of the text. o The author and audience of the text were also considered. The author(s) would have composed the text with the interests of their audience in mind. o Place of composition was also important—whether it was written in a forest, Gurukul, or in the royal pal- ace. It gives context for a text as complex as Mahabharata. Mahabharata is written in simple Sanskrit when compared to Vedas and Prashastis. Historians classified the content into two heads – narrative, which contains stories (e.g. Ekalavya), and didactic, containing prescriptions about social norms and meant for the purpose of instruction. (e.g. Bhagavad Gita). However, this division was not very sharp but it is believed that didactic sections were added in later periods. Mahabharata is referred to as “Itihasa” in the Sanskrit tradition. The actual story of the conflict between Pandavas and Kauravas was orally transmitted, but some historians feel that there is no evidence of the battle. The original story of Mahabharata was probably composed by charioteer-bards known as Sutas who accompanied the Kshatriya warriors in battlefield, composed poems about their victories and achievements, and passed them on to coming generations. From 500 BCE, Brahmanas took over the task of writing and compiling this epic. When chiefdoms became kingdoms, the kings wanted their Itihasa to be recorded and preserved. Many sections were added to the Mahabharata from 200 BCE to 200 CE, when Vishnu worship became prominent and Krishna came to be identified as an “avtar” of Lord Vishnu. The teachings of Krishna to Arjuna in the battlefield became an important section of Mahabharata, which grew from 10,000 to 100,000 verses. This enormous composition is attributed to Sage Vyasa. Descriptions of the city in the epic might have been added later when towns flourished or it could have been the poet’s imagination. Archaeologist B. B. Lal notes that “walls of mud and mud bricks were excavated” at modern-day Hastinapura at a level corresponding to the period 12th–7th century BCE. Mud plaster with reed marks suggest houses had reed walls. During Mahabharata time, polyandry was practised. For example, Draupadi was married to the Pandavas. However, the numerous explanations given for this event over time suggest that polyandry was not favoured by Brahmanas eventually. Mahabharata was considered a dynamic text for various reasons. The stories and message of Mahabharata spread in many places and several languages. Several region-specific stories found their way into the epic, but the central story remains the same. Themes and episodes from the Mahabharata were depicted in sculpture, paintings, performing arts (dance, drama) and other kinds of narrations. Example 1 What do you know about the language and the Step III: Historians feel that Mahabharata was a content of Mahabharata? Explain. dramatic story and the didactic portions could have Ans. been added later. Step I: The main language of Mahabharata was Step IV: The text is also described as “Itihasa” in the Sanskrit and it was in simple form than the Vedas. It early Sanskrit tradition. Some historians believe that was written in other languages like Prakrit, Pali and the war between Pandavas and Kauravas could refer Tamil. to an actual conflict committed to oral tradition, but Step II: The content of the story is divided into others feel that there is no corroborative evidence of two major heads – the narrative and the didactic the battle. sections. The narrative section includes all stories and the section that includes prescriptions about social norms is known as didactic. 14 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII Key Words Kula – Family Vamsha – Lineage Patriliny – Tracing descent from father to son Matriliny – Tracing descent through the mother Endogamy – Marriage within a group unit Exogamy – Marriage outside a group unit Polygyny – Practice of a man having several wives Polyandry – Practice of a woman having several husbands Kanyadana – Gift of daughter in marriage by the father Metronymics – Names derived from that of the mother Gotra – Supposed descent from a common ancestor, usually a vedic seer Nishada – Hunting community Mlechchhas – Outsiders, barbarians, those speaking non-Sanskritic languages Shrenis – Guilds Vanik – Merchants Mendicant – Religious people living on alms Chandalas – Untouchables who handled corpses and dead animals Puta – A Prakrit word meaning ‘son’ Stridhana – Wealth or gifts given to women on the occasion of their marriage Bards – Poets composing and reciting oral stories/songs Sutta Pitaka – A Buddhist text describing kingship though social contract Mahasammata – Elected leader, also known as ‘the great elect’ Didactic – Something that is meant for the purpose of instruction Itihasa – “Thus it was” / History Sutas – Charioteer bards who accompanied Kshatriyas to battlefields and composed poems describing their victories/achievements. Key Dates 500 BCE – Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi, a work on Sanskrit grammar 500 – 200 BCE – Major Dharmasutras compiled in Sanskrit 500 – 100 BCE – Early Buddhists texts in Pali (including Tripitaka) 500 BCE – 400 CE – Ramayana and Mahabharata (compiled in Sanskrit) 200 BCE – 200 CE – Tamil Sangam literature composed and Manusmriti composed in Sanskrit 100 CE – Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita composed in Sanskrit – both being works on medicine 200 CE (onwards) – Puranas started being composed in Sanskrit 300 CE – Natyashastra of Bharata composed in Sanskrit 300 – 600 CE – Some other Dharmashastras composed in Sanskrit c. 400-500 CE – Sanskrit plays including the works of Kalidasa; works on astronomy and mathematics by Aryabhata and Varahamihira (in Sanskrit); compilation of Jaina works (in Prakrit).  Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII 15 CHAPTER-4 THINKERS BELIEFS AND BUILDINGS (CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS) Causes for the Rise of New Philosophers and Topic-1 Philosophies Revision Notes The sources of information used by the historians to reconstruct the period c. 600 BCE to 600 CE are the Buddhist, Jaina and the Brahmanical texts, monuments and inscriptions. Among the best preserved monuments of the time is the stupa at Sanchi Kanakhera, a small village in Bhopal. The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided money for the preservation of the ancient site. Begum Sultan Jehan also funded a museum as well as a guest house and the publication of the volumes. Discovery of Sanchi Stupa and its preservation by the Archaeological Survey of India, had given us more understanding of early Buddhism. A number of thinkers emerged during the mid first millennium BCE like Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in China, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in Greece, Mahavira and Buddha in India. All these tried to understand the mysteries of the existence and relation between humans and cosmic order. There was development of new cities and kingdom, which reflected the social and economic life There were several pre- existing traditions of thought, religious belief and practice, including the early Vedic tradition, known from the Rigveda, compiled between c.1500 and 1000 BCE. The Rigveda consists of hymns in praise of various deities which were chanted when sacrifices were performed. These sacrifices were becoming a problem for common people. More elaborate sacrifices, such as the Rajasuya and Ashvamedha, were performed by chiefs and kings who depended on Brahmana priests to conduct these rituals. According to Upanishads, people were curious about the meaning of life after death and rebirth. People started questioning Vedic rituals and sacrifices. According to Buddhist text, 64 schools of thought existed and hence we get a glimpse of lively discussions and debates from these texts. Teachers travelled from one place to another to convince people about the validity of their understanding of the world. If the philosopher succeeded in convincing his opponent then the followers of the latter should become his disciple. New sects grew with the ability to convince people. Both Mahavira and Buddha questioned the authority of Vedas and stressed that men and women could strive to attain liberation from the trials and tribulations of worldly existence. Buddha’s teachings passed orally from one generation to another and during his lifetime, Buddha’s teachings were not written. After his death, Buddha’s teachings were compiled by his disciples and it was called Tipitaka. Buddhist texts were preserved in manuscripts for several centuries in monasteries in different parts of Asia. Modern translations have been prepared from Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan texts. It has three parts – Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. As Buddhism travelled to new regions such as Sri Lanka, other texts such as the Dipavamsa (literally, the chronicle of the island) and Mahavamsa (the great chronicle) were written, containing regional histories of Buddhism. Many of these works contained biographies of the Buddha. Some of the oldest texts are in Pali, while later compositions are in Sanskrit. Pilgrims from China travelled to India in search of Buddhist text and later translated them in other language. According to Sutta Pitaka, people are of two types – Fatalist and Materialist. 16 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII Topic-2 Jainism and Buddhism Revision Notes The main philosophy of Jainism existed in north India even before the birth of Vardhamana (Mahavira). According to Jaina traditions, there were 23 teachers even before Mahavira and they were known as Tirthankaras. The important idea of Jainism depends on the fact that the whole world is animated. The assumption that life exists in all living beings is another important Jain philosophy. Jainism spread into different parts in India. Jain scholars also produced great literature in different languages like Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil. These manuscripts were presented in libraries attached to temples since many centuries. Jain monks travelled from one place to another to spread their religion. Royal patronage was also given to Jainism. Kanishka, a Kushana king, converted to Buddhism and worked to spread it to other areas. Jainism later was divided into two parts: o Shvetambara — (wear only white clothes) o Digambara — (wear no clothes) Buddhism – The source of information about the early life of Buddha is through manuscripts and hagiography. Buddha, also known as Siddhartha, was the son of a king. Four events in his life changed him and these were an old man, a dead body, a sick person and a saint. These four truths changed the life of Siddhartha and he renounced the world. He left his palace in search of his own truth. He meditated for many days and attained enlightenment. He was called Buddha and taught Dhamma (Dharma) or the path of righteous living. The Buddha was the most influential teacher of his times. As per Buddha, society is not made of supernatural power but by human themselves. Buddha followed middle path and according to him, world is constantly changing. It is soulless and there is nothing eternally permanent. Sorrow is intrinsic to human existence. The existence of God was irrelevant in the earliest forms of Buddhism. Salvation or nirvana was possible if a person controls his ego and desires. Buddha founded Sangha for his followers and the monks lived simple life, teaching Dhamma and lived on alms. Women were later allowed to join Sangha and given equal status. After Buddha’s death, Buddhism split into two branches - Hinayana & Mahayana. Topic-3 Stupas - (Sanchi Stupa and Amaravati) Revision Notes Some places were regarded as sacred by Buddhist monks. Many chaityas have been mentioned in Buddhist literature. Places associated with Lord Buddha were Lumbini, Gaya, Sarnath and Kushinagar. Buddhist ideas and practices emerged out of dialogue with other conditions. From early times, people tend to regard certain places as sacred which include special trees, sites or rocks. The sites with small shrines attached to them are described as chaityas and Buddhist literature mentions several chaityas.  Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII 17 The tradition of erecting shapes may be pre-Buddhist but they were claimed to be associated with Buddhism. There were several reasons for buildings. The relics of Buddha were kept in these shapes and came to be venerated as an emblem of both Buddha and Buddhism. According to Buddhist texts, Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed relics of Buddha in important town and ordered to construct shapes over them. Some popular stupas include Sanchi, Sarnath and Bharhut. Donations for building shapes were made by Satavahanas, guilds of ivory workers, Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis and common people as well. Stupa means a heap in Sanskrit. Earlier it was a simple semi-circular mound of earth, later called ‘anda’. Gradually, it evolved into a more complex structure, balancing round and square shapes. Above the ‘anda’ was the harmika (a balcony like structure that represented the abode of the gods.) Arising from harmika was the yashti (a mast), surrounding the mound was a railing separating the sacred space from the secular world. In 1796, a local raja, who wanted to build a temple, stumbled upon the ruins of Amaravati. Some years later, British officer, Colin Mackenzie visited the site and made detailed drawings of the place. His reports were never published. In 1854, Walter Elliot discovered the remains and concluded that the stupa of Amaravati was the largest and beautifully decorated stupa ever built by any Buddhist monk. The 1850s slabs from Amaravati were taken to different places. The efforts of H. H. Cole could not save stupas of Amaravati but saved the stupa of Sanchi. Sanchi survived as historians and scholars realised the value of Stupas and decided to preserve and study them. Efforts of Shahjehan Begum for protection of Sanchi Stupa cannot be undermined. Scene from “Vessantara Jataka” is depicted on the gateway of the Sanchi Stupa. The symbols used to represent Buddha were an empty seat wheel etc. Shalabhanjika, images of animals like Elephant, Maya and the image of serpent were there all over the stupas. Example 1 Trace out how stupas were built. Donations made by kings such as the Satavahanas. Ans. By guilds (ivory workers financed gateways at Step I: Stupas were regarded as sacred as it Sanchi). contained relics of the Buddha such as his bodily Step IV: Hundreds of donations were made by remains or objects used by him were buried there. women and men who mention their names, Step II: According to a Buddhist text, the Asoka sometimes adding the name of the place from vadana, Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s where they came, as well as their occupations and relics to every important town and ordered the names of their relatives. construction of stupas over them. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis also contributed towards Step III: By the second century BCE, Bharhut, building these monuments. Sanchi and Sarnath, had been built. Topic-4 New Religious Traditions Revision Notes Changes in Buddhism : Early Buddhist teachings gave importance to self-efforts in achieving nibbana and Buddha was regarded as human being, who attained enlightenment and nibbana through his own efforts. Later on, it was believed that Lord Buddha is a saviour and could ensure nibbana to those who worshipped him. Simultaneously, the concept of Boddhisatta developed. Boddhisattas were those who were compassionate beings and who accumulated merit through their efforts but used this not to get nibbana but to help others. The worship of Buddha and Boddhisattas became important and it was known as Mahayana or ‘Greater Vehicle’. Growth of Puranic Hinduism: In the growth of Puranic Hinduism, notion of saviour was both in Vaishnavism (worshippers of Vishnu) and Shaivism (worshippers of Shiva) which laid emphasis on the worship of a chosen deity. In such a worship, the bond between deity and God was visualised as of love and devotion. In the case of Vaishnavism, cults developed around the various avatars or incarnation of the deity. Different avatars were popular in different parts of the country. 18 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII Recognising each of these local deities as a form of Vishnu was one way of crediting a more unified religious tradition. Some of these forms were represented in sculpture, like Shiva was symbolised as Linga as well as in human form. Such representation depicted a complex set of ideas about the deities and their attributes through symbols. Example: headdress, ornaments, weapons, auspicious objects etc. To understand these images, it is required to get knowledge and information from Puranas written and compiled by Brahmanas. Many stories which passed from generations were also included and referred by historians and were in simple Sanskrit. Puranic stories evolved through interaction among people like priests, merchants and the common people who travelled from one place to another. Early temple was a small square room called garbhagriha with a single doorway where the deity was placed. Then over a period tall structures called “Shikhara” were built over the central shrine and temple walls were decorated with sculpture. In later period, the temples became more elaborate with assembly halls, huge walls and gateways (Gopuram) and arrangement for supplying water. Some of the early temples were hollowed out of huge rocks or artificial caves and cave temples became more prominent during the 8th century when the entire Kailashnatha temple of Shiva was carved out in a cave. Art historians collected information from written text to understand any sculpture. To understand Indian sculpture, they compared it with other cultures like the Greek sculpture which was incomparable. Key Words Ø Rajasuya – Performed by kings who considered themselves powerful Ø Ashwamedha – Horse sacrifice Ø Kutagarashala –  Hut with pointed roof where debates took place or in groves where travelling mendicants halted. Ø Tipitaka – Compilation of the teachings of Buddha by his disciples Ø Upanishads – Brahmanical philosophical text Ø Hagiography – Biography of a Saint or a religious leader Ø Ajivikas – A Buddhist sect who was also defined as fatalists Ø Anicca – Transcend and constant changing Ø Fatalist – Believed in fate and whatever happens is the fruit of their previous life Ø Materialist – Never believed in action of previous birth and lived life with full pleasure Ø Lokayatas – A religious sect which are defined as materialists Ø Chaitya – Where Buddhist monks meditated Ø Stupa – Where relics of Buddha are kept Ø Vihara – Where Buddhist monks lived Ø Relic – Physical remains of a saint Ø Niches – A shallow recess, one in a wall to display a stone or ornaments Ø Scrolls – A roll of papyrus parchment Ø Mahaparinibbana – Longest Sutta in Pali, about the end of Buddha’s life Ø Shalabhanjika – Sculpture of a woman displaying stylised feminine features standing near a tree or branch. Ø Nibbana – Nirvana Ø Bodhisattas – In Mahayana, a person who is able to reach nirvana by being compassionate to those who are suffering. Ø Ayudhas – Weapons or auspicious objects which the deities hold in their hands.  Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII 19 Key Dates Nineteenth century  1814 — Founding of the Indian Museum, Calcutta  1834 — Publication of Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus, by Ram Raja: Cunningham explores the stupa at Sarnath.  1835-1842 — James Fergusson surveys major archaeological sites.  1851 — Estabilishment of the Government Museum, Madras  1854 — Alexander Cunningham publishes Bhilsa Topes, one of the earliest works on Sanchi  1878 — Rajendra Lala Mitra publishes Buddha Gaya: The Heritage of Sakya Muni  1880 — H.H. Cole appointed Curator of Ancient Monuments  1888 — Passing of the Treasure Trove Act. given the government the right to acquire all objects of archaeological interest. Twentieth Century  1914 — John Marshall and Alfred Foucher publish The Monuments of Sanchi  1923 — John Marshall publishes the Conservation Manual  1955 — Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru lays the foundation stone of the national Muscum, New Delhi  1989 — Sanchi declared a World Heritage Site Key Maps Major Buddhist Sites 20 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII PART - II CHAPTER-5 THROUGH THE EYES OF TRAVELLERS (PERCEPTIONS OF SOCIETY) Topic-1 Al-Biruni and his Accounts Revision Notes Al-Biruni was born in Khwarezm/ Khwarizm (in present day Uzbekistan) in 973 CE. Khwarezm was an important centre of learning. Al-Biruni received the best education and was well versed in a number of languages like Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Syrian and Sanskrit. He also studied the works of Plato, Aristotle and other Greek philosophers through Arabic translations. When Sultan Mahmud Ghazni invaded Khwarizm in 1017 CE he took many poets and scholars back to his capital Ghazni. Al-Biruni was one of them. Initially, he disliked this but gradually developed a liking for the city and spent rest of his life there until his death at the age of 70. Al-Biruni was a great mathematician, philosopher, astrologer and scholar of Sanskrit. Mahmud was impressed with his knowledge and provided him an honourable place in his court. Al-Biruni accompanied Mahmud on his invasions into India many times and stayed in different parts of India. Being well versed in many languages, Al-Biruni could compare languages and translate texts successfully. He translated several Sanskrit works into Arabic, including Patanjali’s work on grammar. Al-Biruni wrote a book in Arabic called “Kitab-ul-Hind”. It was divided into 80 chapters covering many subjects like astronomy, philosophy, religion, festivals, alchemy, weight and measures, social life, iconography, laws and metrology. Kitab-ul-Hind was also known as Tarikh-ul-Hind. Scholars were of the opinion that since he was oriented towards mathematics, his book was almost geometric in structure remarkable for its precision and predictability. He used Arabic language and wrote his texts for the people on the frontiers of subcontinent. He was familiar with translation and adaptations of Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit texts into Arabic and he was also critical about the ways in which these texts were written and clearly wanted to improve them. Al-Biruni discussed several “barriers” during his writings about India. Al-Biruni wanted to understand the caste system in India and made it clear that social division was not unique in India. He believed the concept of social pollution belonging to the caste system was against the laws of nature. The major drawbacks of his accounts are: o He did not write elaborately regarding the political condition of India. o He did not write an account of his personal knowledge. It was based on Indian texts available at that time. Example 1 Examine the causes that made Al-Biruni visit Step III: He had read Arabic translation of Indian India. work. Sanskrit works on astronomy, mathematics Ans. and medicine had been translated into Arabic from Step I: Sultan Mahmud invaded Khwarizm and eighth century onwards. took several scholars and poets back to his capital; Step IV: He came to Punjab when it was part Al-Biruni was one of them. of Ghaznavi empire, his contacts with the local Step II: He arrived in Ghazni as a hostage but population helped in creating an environment of gradually developed a liking for the city and it was mutual trust and understanding. in Ghazni, that Al-Biruni developed an interest Step V: Al-Biruni spent his time with the Brahmana about India, which was not unusual. priests and scholars learning Sanskrit and studying religious and philosophical texts.  Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII 21 Topic-2 Ibn Battuta and his Accounts Revision Notes Ibn Battuta’s travelling account “Rihla” gives very interesting information about social and cultural life of India and was written in Arabic. He considered experience gained through travels as a more important source of knowledge than books. Ibn Battuta was attacked by bandits and robbers several times. Ibn Battuta was a globe trotter. Around 1332-33, he went to Mecca, travelled to Syria, Yemen, Oman, Persia, Iraq, India and China. He stayed in India, Multan and his visit to China was extensive. He went over till Beijing but didn’t stay over there for long. He decided to go back to his home in 1347 C.E. and his descriptions about China are often compared with the description of Marco Polo. He came to India to get patronage of Mohammad bin Tughlaq and became Qazi or judge in Emperor’s court over a period of time. Due to a misunderstanding, he was sent behind the bars. Later, he was released and sent to China as the envoy of the Emperor to the Mongol ruler. Problems faced by Ibn Battuta during his travelling were more hazardous than today. He took forty days to travel from Multan to Delhi and fifty days to travel from Sind to Delhi. He often became homesick and felt lonely while travelling. In his book “Rihla”, he recorded his observations in an exciting and interesting way. He recorded about unique things (paan and coconut) and also about trade and commerce. He compared coconut tree with that of palm tree, they look exactly the same except one produces dates and the other bears coconut as its fruit. He also mentioned that the nut of the coconut tree resembles a man’s head. He described the paan as a tree which is cultivated in the same manner as the grapevine. Ibn Battuta found the cities in the subcontinent full of exciting opportunities and they were densely populated and prosperous. He described Delhi as a vast city with huge population and equivalent to Daulatabad in size. Most cities had crowded streets, bright and colourful markets with wide variety of goods. The bazaars were not only places of economic transactions, but the hub of social and cultural activities. Most bazaars had a mosque and a temple. Space was marked for public performances by singers, dancers and musicians. He found Indian agriculture very productive because of the fertility of the soil. Ibn Battuta was amazed by the efficiency of postal system which allowed merchants, to not only send information and remit credit across long distances but also dispatch goods. Topic-3 Francois Bernier and his Accounts Revision Notes Francois Bernier was a doctor, historian, political philosopher and Frenchman. He came to the Mughal court in search of opportunities and stayed in India from 1656 to 1668 (for 12 years). He was closely associated to the Mughal court as physician to prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan. He was constantly comparing ‘East’ and ‘West’. He travelled to several parts of the country and wrote accounts of what he saw and compared India with the situation in Europe. He dedicated his major writing to the King of France, Louis XIV. 22 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII His works were published in France in French language in 1670-71 and translated into English and other languages like Dutch, German and Italian within next five years. According to Bernier, one of the fundamental differences between Mughal India and Europe was the lack of private property in land in the former. He believed in the virtues of private property and saw crown ownership of land as harmful for both the state and its people. According to him, king distributed it among his nobles that resulted in disastrous consequences for the economy and society. Bernier felt that artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their manufactured products and the profit was taken by the state. A vast quantity of the world’s precious metal flowed into India, as manufactured products were exported in exchange for gold and silver. Merchants often had strong community or kin ties and were organised into their own castes and occupational bodies. The prosperous merchant community engaged in long trade. Slaves, were openly sold in markets and were regularly gifted to each other. According to Bernier, some slaves were, engaged in service of Sultan and were expert in music and dance. Sultan also employed female slaves to keep a watch on his nobles. Slaves were used for domestic purposes. All the contemporary travellers have written about the treatment with women, which was a crucial point of difference between the western and eastern countries. Bernier wrote in detail about the inhuman practice of Sati. Thus, travellers’ accounts provide us with a tantalising glimpse of the men and women and the societies during these centuries. At the same time, their observations were shaped from the places from where they came and they had missed many aspects of social life with which they are not familiar. The experiences of men and women from the subcontinent who crossed mountains and seas beyond the subcontinent and ventured into different levels, remain unknown. Hopefully, their experiences and their findings were systematically recorded by the historians in the years to come. Key Words Ø Metrology — It is the science of measurement Ø Khwarezm/Khwarizm — A place in present day Uzbekistan Ø Sindhu — Indus Ø Iconography — A collection of illustration or portraits Ø Al-Hind — Arab usage for the region, east of the Indus Ø Hakim/Vaid — Physician Ø Wakil — Lawyers Ø Pandit/Mulla — Teacher Ø Antyaja — Born outside the caste system Ø Mahajans — Caste-based occupational groups of merchants in western India Ø Sheth — Chief of Mahajans Ø Nagarsheth — Chief of merchant community in cities Ø Uluq — The Horse post Ø Dawa — Foot post Ø Tankas — Coins Ø Crown ownership — Land owned by the king Ø Burrouhgs — Boroughs (town privileged by the royal clan) Ø Ruine — Ruin Ø Marishes — Marshes Ø Bengale — Bengal  Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII 23 CHAPTER-6 BHAKTI-SUFI TRADITIONS: CHANGES IN RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND DEVOTIONAL TEXTS Integration of Religious Developments and the Topic-1 Growth of Early Bhakti Movements Revision Notes  The period from the 8th to the 18th century occupies a significant place in Indian history as regards to the development of religious tradition. During this time, several changes occurred in the religious beliefs and new traditions like that of the Bhakti and Sufi came into development.  New literary sources from 8th to 18th century include the compositions of poet-saints, who sang in their regional languages and were set to music. This was followed by many generations of disciples of these saints, who elevated and modified the messages.  From 8th to 18th century, the striking feature was the increasing visibility of wide range of Gods and Goddesses in sculpture and texts.  There was integration of cults– compositions, compilation and presentation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verses.  Acceptance was given by Brahmanas to beliefs and practices of women and Shudras who were generally excluded from Vedic learning.  Tantric forms of worship were spread in different parts of subcontinent. The followers of Tantricism believed that life proceeds from Shakti form of the Goddess. Both men and women were free to take part and practitioners ignored differences of caste and class within the ritual context. Tantricism is connected to Shakti-cult. Few people who were engaged in Tantric practices ignored the authority of the Vedas.  Bhakti traditions classified into Saguna (with attributes) and Nirguna (without attributes). Saguna Bhakti includes traditions focused on the worship of specific deities like Shiva, Vishnu his incarnation and forms of Goddess or Devi. On the other hand, Nirguna Bhakti stresses on the worship of an abstract form of God.  The early Bhakti movements originated in South India and were led by Alvars and Nayanars. Alvars were devotees of Vishnu and Nayanars were the devotees of Shiva. They composed many devotional songs which became very popular among the masses. The Alvars and Nayanars travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their Gods.  During their journeys, these saints identified few shrines as abodes of their chosen deities. Later on, large temples were built on these sacred places, which later developed as Pilgrimage Centres. Many historians suggest that these Alvars and Nayanars were against caste system and dominance of the Brahmanas, which may be right to some extent because Bhakti saints belonged to different communities ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators to untouchables.  Presence of women was an important feature of Bhakti traditions. For example, the compositions of Andal, a woman Alvar, were sung widely and even today these compositions are sung with deep devotion and faith. Similarly, Karaikkal Ammaiyar, another woman devotee of Lord Shiva, took the path of extreme asceticism in order to achieve her goal.  Nayanars and Alvars were respected by the Vellala peasants. Powerful Chola rulers gave their support to Brahmanical and Bhakti traditions.  Inscription of 945 CE suggests that Chola ruler Parantaka I consecrated metal images of poet-saint Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar in a Shiva temple, which were carried in processions during the festivals of these saints.  A new movement known as Virashaivas or Lingayats emerged in Karnataka in the 12th century which was led by a Brahmana named Basavanna. Initially, he was a Jaina and a Minister in the Court of a Chalukya ruler. His followers came to be known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) and Lingayats (wearers of the Linga). The vachanas composed in Kannada by women and men who were followers of this tradition, provide us significant information about it. Shiva is worshipped as Linga and Virashaiva tradition is still popular in Karnataka till today.  Lingayats believed that they are united with Shiva after their death and will not return to this world and ceremonially bury. Their dead bodies were buried and they did not practice funeral rites given in Dharmashastras. They questioned the theory of rebirth and opposed the caste system. 24 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII  In North India, the compositions of Alvars and Nayanars were not found on any text till the 14th century. It was during this period that many Rajput states emerged in North India and Brahmanas were given importance.  With the advent of the Muslim rulers, Islam spread and Arabian traders came to settle in various parts of India. The Popular Practice of Islam and the Growth of Topic-2 Sufism Revision Notes  By 11th century, Sufis began to grow in different parts of the Islamic world. The word Silsila means a chain, a continuous link between master and disciple. This chain is stretched to the unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammad. It was through these chains that spiritual power and blessings were transmitted to devotees. Special rituals of initiation were developed in which, one needs to take an oath of allegiance, wore a patched garment and shaved their head.  When the Shaikh died, his tomb (dargah) became the centre of devotion for his followers, which encouraged the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave, mainly on his death anniversary, for people who believed that after death, saints were united with God and were closer to him compared to when he was living. People sought their blessings and evolved the cult of the Shaikh revered as Wali. In western India, through sea routes, Arab Muslim traders settled along the Malabar coast (Kerala). They not only adopted the local Malayalam language but also followed many cultures like matriliny and matrilocal residence.  Some architectural features of mosques are universal like their orientation towards Mecca, while some features showed variations like building materials and roofs. There was no existence of terms like Hindu and Muslim and people were classified on the basis of their birth place. Examples: Turkish Muslims were designated as Turushka and people from Persia as Parashika.  In the early cultures of Islam, a group of religious-minded people called Sufis turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against the growing materialism of the Caliphate as a religious and political institution. They laid emphasis on seeking salvahai through intense devotions and love to God by following his commands and Prophet Muhammad. The sufis sought on interpretation of the Quran through personal experiences. Some mystic men started movements on the basis of Sufi ideas and these mystics scarved. The Khanqah took to mendicacy and observed celibacy. They ignored rituals and followed asceticism. They were known by different names like Qalandars, Malangs, Madaris, Haidaris, etc.  The Chistis were the most influential out of the sufi groups who migrated to India in the late 12th century. They adopted the features of the Indian devotional traditions and local environments. The Khanqah was the centre of social idea. Shaikh Nizamuddin appointed few spiritual successors and sent them to different parts of the subcontinent to set up Khanqahs. In this way, the fame of Chistis spread around rapidly and a number of pilgrims began to flow to his shrine and also to the shrines of his ancestors.  Ziyarat to the tomb of Sufi saints is prevalent all over the Islamic world. This practice is to seek the blessing of the Sufi saints and for the past 700 years, people of all castes, creed and background had shown their devotion to the Dargahs of the five great Chisti saints.  Use of music and dance are part of the Ziyarat which includes mystical chants performed by musicians or qawaals to develop divine ecstasy. The Sufis meditated God by reciting the zikr (the divine names) or evoking his presence through sama (audition). Chistis adopted the local language in sama and the people of Delhi associated with Chisti silsila spoke Hindavi, the language of the common man.  The most popular Dargah is the dargah of Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti at Ajmer and it is popular because of the Shaikh’s austerity and royal patronage. It is situated on the trade route linking Delhi and Gujarat, thereby attracting lots of travellers. King Akbar visited this tomb 14 times and gave generous gifts.  Sufism spread in the Deccan via the region of Bijapur (Karnataka), where Sufi poems were written in Dakhani, a variant of Urdu composed by Chisti saints living there around 17th and 18th centuries. It is through these that Islam gained a place in the villages of the Deccan.  Chisti’s main feature was their austerity. They maintained a distance from worldly power. They generally accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the political elites. They accepted in cash or kind and did not accumulate the donations. They used it for food, clothing and ritual necessities.  The kings wanted the support of these Sufi saints because of their popularity with the people. It was believed that Auliya could interact with God to improve the material and spiritual conditions of the people, which was also the reason as to why rulers often wanted their tomb to be within vicinity of Sufi Dargahs and Khanqahs.  Though there were instances of conflict between the Sultans and Sufis, yet in general, the relations were cordial.  Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII 25 New Devotional Paths: Dialogue and Dissent in Topic-3 Northern India Revision Notes  Many poet-saints engaged in explicit and implicit dialogue with these new social situations, ideas and institutions.  Kabir (c. fourteenth-fifteenth centuries) is perhaps one of the most outstanding examples of a poet-saint who emerged within this context.  Verses ascribed to Kabir have been compiled in three distinct but overlapping traditions. The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabir panth (the path or sect of Kabir) in Varanasi and elsewhere in Uttar Pradesh; the Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan, and many of his compositions are found in the Adi Granth Sahib. Kabir ’s poems have survived in several languages and dialects; and some are composed in the special language of nirguna poets, the sant bhasha.  Just as Kabir’s ideas probably crystallised through dialogue and debate explicit or implict with the traditions of sufis and yogis in the region of Awadh (part of present-day Uttar Pradesh), his legacy was claimed by several groups, who remembered him and continue to do so.  This is most evident in later debates about whether he was a Hindu or a Muslim by birth, debates that are reflected in hagiographies.  Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born in a Hindu merchant family in a village called Nankana Sahib near the river Ravi.  The message of Baba Guru Nanak is spelt out in his hymns and teachings. These suggest that he advocated a form of nirguna bhakti. He rejected sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, austerities.  For Baba Guru Nanak, the Absolute or rab had no gender or form. He proposed a simple way to connect to the Divine by remembering and repeating the Divine Name, expressing his ideas through hymns called “shabad” in Punjabi, the language of the region.  Mirabai (c. fifteenth-sixteenth centuries) is perhaps the best-known woman poet within the bhakti tradition.  Biographies have been reconstructed primarily from the bhajans attributed to her, which were transmitted orally for centuries.  Historians draw on a variety of sources to reconstruct histories of religious traditions these include sculpture, architecture, stories about religious preceptors, compositions attributed to women and men engaged in the quest of understanding the nature of the Divine. Key Words  Hagiography — Biography of a saint written by their followers  Vachanas — Literally, sayings  Jangama — Wandering monks  Ulama — Scholars of Islamic traditions  Sharia — Law governing the Muslim community, based on the Povan and Hadis, tradition of the Prophet.  Zimma — Arabic word meaning protection  Zimmi — Arabic word meaning protected  Jizya — Tax paid by non- Muslims  Namaz/salat — Prayers  Zakat — Giving alms  Jnana, Ginan — Knowledge  Zikr — Divine names  Qawwals — Specially trained musicians  Dargah — Tomb shrine, Persian word meaning Court.  Ziyarat — Pilgrimage to tomb of Sufi saints  Wali (plural auliya) — A friend of God, a Sufi who claimed proximity to Allah, acquiring his grace to perform miracles  Langar — Open kitchen 26 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII CHAPTER-7 AN IMPERIAL CAPITAL: VIJAYANAGARA Topic-1 Rise and Fall of Vijayanagara Empire Revision Notes  Vijayanagara the ‘city of victory’ was the name of both a city as well as an empire.  It was founded in the fourteenth century by two brothers, named Harihara and Bukka. In its heyday, it stretched from the river Krishna in the north to the extreme south of the peninsula.  Vijayanagara was attacked and plundered in 1565 CE. Though it was completely destroyed, till seventeenth- eighteenth centuries, it lived with memories of people living in the Krishna-Tungabhadra Doab. People remembered it as Hampi, a name derived from the Mother Goddess, Pampadevi.  These oral traditions along with archaeological findings, monuments, inscriptions and other records helped scholars to rediscover Vijayanagara Empire.  The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 CE by an engineer, cartographer and antiquarian named Colin Mackenzie. He prepared the first survey map of this site. The information that he received was based on the memories of Priests of Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi.  Colin Mackenzie’s arduous work, gave a new direction to all the future researcher.  The Vijayanagara Empire included within its fluctuating frontiers, the people who spoke different languages and followed different religious traditions.  On the northern frontiers, the Vijayanagara kings competed with the Sultan of Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa.  The rulers of Vijayanagara, who were called Rayas, built temples on the tradition of Cholas in Tamil Nadu and the Hoysalas in Karnataka and carried them to new heights.  During 14th-16th centuries, wars were based on cavalry due to which horses were important. Quality horses were imported from Arabia and Central Asia. This trade was initially controlled by Arabs. Local merchants known as ‘kudirai chettis’ or horse merchants also participated in the trade.  From 1498 CE, Portuguese traders arrived on the west coast of the sub-continent and attempted to establish trading and military centres. They used muskets efficiently, enabling them to become an important player with tangled politics during that period.  Vijayanagara was well known for its spices, textiles and precious stones and there was a great demand for these among the elites. The revenue derived from trade, contributed significantly to the prosperity of the state.  Sangama Dynasty was the first dynasty that ruled over Vijayanagara till 1485 CE. Sangamas were overthrown by Saluvas military commanders and they remained in power till 1505 CE. They were replaced by Tuluvas. Krishnadeva Raya was the most famous king of the Tuluva Dynasty.  During his tenure, the empire touched its glory.  Krishnadeva Raya’s rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation. He conquered the region between the rivers of Tungabhadra and Krishna till 1512 CE (Raichur Doab). Then, later on he subdued the rulers of Orissa and defeated the Sultan of Bijapur in 1520 CE.  Krishnadeva Raya built and contributed some of the finest temples and added impressive ‘’Gopurams’’ to many temples in South India. He also found a suburban township of Nagalapuram, near Vijayanagara, after his mother ’s name.  After his death, strain started within the imperial structure. It was controlled by another ruling lineage in the end, Aravidu in 1542 CE, which ruled till the end of seventeenth century.  In 1565, Rama Raya the Chief Minister of Vijayanagara went into the battle at Rakshasi-Tangadi, also known as Talikota, where he was defeated by the joint forces of Bijapur, Ahmednagar and Golconda. The victorious armies attacked and plundered the city of Vijayanagara. The city was totally abandoned within a few years.  It was the policy of Rama Raya who tried to play off one Sultan against another that led the Sultans to combine together and defeat him.  Among those who exercised power in the empire were military chiefs called Nayakas. They spoke Telugu or Kannada and constantly moved in search of fertile land. Many Nayakas often rebelled and had to be subdued by military action.  The Amara-Nayaka System was one of the major political innovations of the Vijayanagara kingdom. There exists a probability that many features of this system were derived from the Iqta system of Delhi Sultanate.  Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII 27  The Amara-Nayakas were military commanders. They were given different territories to govern by the Rayas. They used to collect taxes and revenue from peasants, artisans and traders, part of the revenue was kept by them for personal use and also to maintain horses and elephants. Rest was given to the treasury of the kingdom. These contingents helped the king to control the entire peninsula.  They also appeared in person and expressed their loyalty by giving tributes and gifts to the Royal Court.  Administration of the Vijayanagara Empire was very good and its people were very happy.  The Vijayanagara Empire began to decline by 16th century and this mighty empire ended in 17th century.  Four dynasties ruled over Vijayanagara: The Sangama Dynasty The Saluvas Dynasty The Tuluva Dynasty The Aravidu Dynasty Example 1 Why did the imperial power of Vijayanagara shifting alignments, which led to an alliance of the decline after the death of Krishnadeva Raya? Sultanates against Vijayanagara. Ans. Step III: In 1565, Rama Raya, the chief minister of Step I: Strain began to show in the Vijayanagara Vijayanagara led an army into the battle at Rakshasi- after the death of Krishnadeva Raya in 1529. His Tangadi (also known as Talikota) where his forces successors were disturbed by the rebellious nayakas. were defeated by the combined armies of Bijapur, Step II: By 1542, control of the centre was shifted Ahmednagar and Golconda. to Aravidu, another ruling lineage. During this Step IV: The victorious armies sacked Vijayanagara period, the military ambitions of the rulers of and the city was abandoned within few years. Vijayanagara and Deccan Sultanate resulted in Topic-2 Vijayanagara - The Capital and its Environs Revision Notes  Vijayanagara, like most capitals, was featured by a distinctive physical layout and building style.  The most prominent feature of Vijayanagara was the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra, which flows in the north-easterly direction. The surrounding landscape is characterised by stunning granite hills and number of streams flow down to the river from these rocky hills.  Embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs and rainwater was also harvested.  The most important tank built in the 15th century is now called Kamalapuram Tank. Water was used from this tank not only for irrigation but was also transmitted through a channel to the Royal Centre.  Hiriya canal was one of the most prominent water works.  Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the rulers of Persia to Calicut in the 15th century mentions seven lines of forts, which fortified not only the city but also agricultural land and forests.  The outermost wall of city linked the hills surrounding the city. No cementing agent or mortar was used.  Archaeologists found evidences of agricultural fields between religious centre and urban centre.  The main purpose of medieval sieges was to starve the defenders into submission. These sieges could last for months and years, which was the reason that rulers built grand granaries within fortified areas.  A second line of fortification went around the inner part of the urban centre and the Royal Centre was surrounded by third line of fortification. Well-guarded gates were built which linked the city to the major roads. Gateways were distinctive architectural features.  Some of the important roads extended from the temple gateways and were lined by markets or bazaars.  There was less archaeological evidence of the houses of ordinary people. Archaeologists found Chinese porcelain in few areas.  Tombs and mosques situated here have distinctive functions but their architectural features resemble the mandapas of Hampi city.  Field surveys indicate that a number of shrines and small temples were there in urban areas belonging to different cults, supported by different communities. 28 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, HISTORY, Class-XII  Surveys indicate that wells, rain water tanks and temple tanks were probably the source of water to the ordinary people.  Royal Centre included more than 60 temples and it was important for rulers to patronage the temples and cults.  The king’s palace was the largest enclosure in Royal Residence and had two platforms called the ‘’Audience Hall’’ and the ‘‘Mahanavami Dibba’’.  Lotus Mahal was the most magnificent building in the Royal Centre named by the British travellers in 19th century. Mackenzie suggested it could probably had been a Council Chamber, where king met his advisors.  Hazara Rama temple was one of the most spectacular temples, probably meant to be used by the king and his family.  When the city was sacked, many structures at Vijayanagara were destroyed, but Nayakas built many palatial structures. Topic-3 The Sacred Centre Revision Notes  According to the local belief, the northern end rocky hills of the city on the banks of Tungabhadra sheltered the monkey kingdom of Bali and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana.  According to other traditions, Pampadevi, the local Mother Goddess, did penance in these hills to marry Virupaksha, incarnation of Shiva and the guardian deity of the kingdom.  It is probable that the choice of the site of Vijayanagara was inspired by the existence of the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi. In fact, the Vijayanagara King claimed to rule on behalf of the God Virupaksha and all royal orders were signed ‘’Shri Virupaksha’’ in Kannada script.  Royal portraits and sculptures were displayed in temples and the King’s visits to temples were treated as important state occasions, accompanied by Nayakas of the Empire.  New features were evident in the temple architecture. These included structures which were the symbol