Physiological Psychology Finals Reviewer PDF

Physiological Psychology_Finals_AB Psych MODULE 4: SENSORY SYSTEMS REVIEWER LESSON 1: Sensation and Perception Sensation: Refers to the process by which sensory receptors receive stimuli from the environment. These stimuli cause a change in the receptor's membrane potential, leadi...

Physiological Psychology_Finals_AB Psych MODULE 4: SENSORY SYSTEMS REVIEWER LESSON 1: Sensation and Perception Sensation: Refers to the process by which sensory receptors receive stimuli from the environment. These stimuli cause a change in the receptor's membrane potential, leading to an electrical charge known as receptor potentials. Sensory receptors detect various types of physical events like light, sound, or temperature. Perception: Refers to the process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information. It is a subjective experience of the world based on the sensory data collected by the receptors. Perception influences how we interact with our environment by making sense of the stimuli we receive Sensory Transduction: The process of converting sensory stimuli into electrical signals that the brain can interpret. LESSON 2: Sense Organs 1. Vision The Stimulus: Light is the stimulus for vision, consisting of electromagnetic radiation with various wavelengths and frequencies. Light travels at a speed of approximately 300,000 km/s (186,000 miles/s). Perceptual Dimensions of Light: Hue: The dominant wavelength of light; it corresponds to the color we perceive. Brightness: The intensity of light, corresponding to how bright or dim an object appears. Saturation: Refers to the purity of the light; more saturated colors are vivid, while less saturated colors appear more washed out. Anatomy of the Human Eye: Orbits: Bony pockets that house and protect the eyes. Sclera: The tough, white outer layer of the eye. Retina: The inner layer at the back of the eye where photoreceptors (rods and cones) are located. Vitreous Humor: A clear gelatinous substance filling the space between the lens and retina. Conjunctiva: The mucous membranes that line the eyelid and cover the white part of the eye. Pupil: The opening in the iris that allows light to enter the eye. Lens: Located behind the iris, it focuses light onto the retina by changing shape (accommodation). Rod: Photoreceptor responsible for detecting light, especially in low-light conditions (cannot detect color). Cone: Photoreceptor responsible for color vision and detailed, sharp vision. Photoreceptor: Cells that convert light energy into electrical signals. Fovea: The central region of the retina, responsible for sharp, detailed vision. Optic Disk: The location where the optic nerve exits the eye; it is responsible for the blind spot. Physiological Psychology_Finals_AB Psych Functioning of the Eye: Accommodation: The lens changes shape to focus light from near or distant objects on the retina. This is controlled by the ciliary muscles. Rod and Cone Function: - Rods are more sensitive to light and allow us to see in dim conditions but don't detect color. - Cones are responsible for color vision and work best in bright light. Blind Spot: The optic disk has no photoreceptors, creating a blind spot where visual information cannot be processed. Key Terms and Concepts to Remember: Sensation vs Perception: Sensation is the detection of stimuli; perception is how we interpret and experience those stimuli. Sensory Transduction: Conversion of sensory information into neural signals. Accommodation: Adjustment of the lens to focus light. Rod vs Cone: Rods are for low-light vision, cones are for color and detailed vision. Fovea: Area of the retina with the sharpest vision, mainly containing cones. Optic Disk: Blind spot where the optic nerve exits the eye. Study Tips: Understand the process of sensory transduction and how it leads to receptor potentials. Differentiate between sensation (detection of stimuli) and perception (interpretation of stimuli). Focus on the anatomy of the eye and the functions of the photoreceptors (rods and cones). Be able to describe the path of light through the eye and how it is processed by the retina. Audition (Hearing) Stimulus for Hearing: Sound waves produced by vibrating objects that set molecules of air in motion. These vibrations are perceived as sounds when they range from approximately 30 to 20,000 Hz. o Pitch: Corresponds to the frequency of sound (measured in Hertz). o Loudness: Corresponds to sound intensity (measured in decibels). o Timbre: The quality or complexity of sound that allows us to distinguish different sounds. Anatomy of the Ear External Ear: The pinna directs sound waves into the ear canal, causing the tympanic membrane (eardrum) to vibrate. Middle Ear: Contains the ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes), which amplify and transmit sound vibrations. Inner Ear: o Cochlea: Contains fluid that transduces sound waves into electrical signals. o Organ of Corti: The sensory organ within the cochlea that contains hair cells that convert sound into nerve impulses. Somatosenses (Touch and Body Senses) Physiological Psychology_Finals_AB Psych Skin Senses: Include touch, pain, temperature, and pressure. Kinesthesia: The sense of body movement and position, arising from receptors in muscles and joints. Organic Senses: Provide information about internal organs, like stomachaches or hunger sensations. Anatomy of the Skin and Receptive Organs Glabrous Skin: Skin that lacks hair (found on palms and soles). Ruffini Corpuscles: Detect skin indentation. Pacinian Corpuscles: Detect vibrations. Meissner's Corpuscles: Detect light touch or low-frequency vibrations. Merkel's Disks: Detect skin indentation. Gustation (Taste) Stimulus for Taste: Molecules dissolve in saliva and stimulate taste receptors. Taste Qualities: There are five basic tastes—sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. Anatomy of the Taste Buds Taste Buds: Found on papillae, which are small bumps on the tongue and palate. o Fungiform Papillae: Located on the front of the tongue and contain taste buds. o Foliate Papillae: Found along the sides of the tongue, contain taste buds. o Circumvallate Papillae: Located at the back of the tongue and contain many taste buds. Olfaction (Smell) Stimulus for Smell: Volatile molecules (odorants) that are lipid-soluble. Olfactory System Anatomy: o Olfactory Epithelium: Contains receptors for smell. o Olfactory Bulb: Processes information from olfactory receptors. o Mitral Cells: Neurons in the olfactory bulb that transmit smell information to the brain. Olfactory Pathway Olfactory information is sent directly to the amygdala (emotion) and limbic cortex (memory), explaining the strong emotional and memory connections to smell. REMEMBER: Sensation is the detection of stimuli; perception is the interpretation of those stimuli. The eye, ear, skin, taste buds, and olfactory system are specialized sense organs that allow us to interact with the environment. Each sense has specific receptors that convert external stimuli into neural signals, which are then processed by the brain to form perceptions. Physiological Psychology_Finals_AB Psych MODULE 5: Movement LESSON 1: Basics of Muscle Physiology All animal movement depends on muscle contractions. Vertebrate muscles fall into three categories: 1. Smooth Muscles: These muscles control the digestive system and other organs. 2. Skeletal/Striated Muscles: These muscles control body movement in relation to the environment. 3. Cardiac Muscles: These are heart muscles with properties of both smooth and skeletal muscles. LESSON 2: Skeletal Muscle Structure: Skeletal muscle fibers are grouped into skeletal muscles, which attach to the skeleton. These muscles give the body its shape and allow for movement. Skeletal muscle fibers are long, multinucleate, and cylindrical, often referred to as striated muscle due to their striped appearance. Key Characteristics: - Voluntary Muscle: Controlled consciously, although it can also be activated reflexively. - Each muscle fiber is enclosed in the endomysium (a connective tissue sheath). Muscle fibers are organized into bundles called fascicles, which are wrapped by the perimysium. The entire muscle is covered by the epimysium, which connects to tendons or aponeuroses to attach muscles to bones, cartilages, or connective tissues. LESSON 3: Skeletal Muscle Mechanics The Primary Motor Cortex controls voluntary muscle movements but doesn’t directly send signals to the muscles. The motor cortex sends impulses to the spinal cord and brainstem, which then control the muscles. Posterior Parietal Cortex: Involved in the awareness of body position in space and the planning of movements. Prefrontal Cortex: Engaged in planning movements based on sensory inputs. Mirror Neurons: These neurons are active both when preparing for a movement and when observing someone perform similar movements. Motor Units: The smallest functional unit in motor activity, consisting of a single motor neuron and all muscle fibers it innervates. Neuromuscular Junction: The synapse where the motor neuron communicates with the muscle fiber, using acetylcholine to induce muscle contraction. Muscle Tracts: - Lateral Corticospinal Tract: Controls the arm muscles. - Medial Corticospinal Tract: Controls neck, shoulders, and trunk muscles, essential for walking and body posture. LESSON 4: Skeletal Muscle Metabolism ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the primary energy currency in the body. Muscles require ATP to contract. Cellular Respiration: This is the process of converting glucose into ATP. Glucose is broken down in a series of chemical reactions to generate energy for muscle contraction. Lesson 5: Control of Skeletal Muscle Proprioceptors: These receptors detect muscle position and movement. They include: - Muscle Spindles: Detect stretch in muscles and trigger a reflexive contraction. - Golgi Tendon Organs: Detect muscle tension and prevent overly forceful contractions. Muscle Fiber Types: - Fast-twitch fibers: Quick to contract but fatigue rapidly; less vascularized. Physiological Psychology_Finals_AB Psych - Slow-twitch fibers: Slow to contract but more efficient for sustained activities; more vascularized. Flexors and Extensors: - Flexors: Muscles that bend a joint (e.g., the biceps). - Extensors: Muscles that straighten a joint (e.g., the triceps). Synergistic Muscles: Muscles that work together to produce the same movement. Antagonistic Muscles: Muscles that oppose each other, such as the biceps and triceps. LESSON 6: Smooth Muscle Structure: Smooth muscles are spindle-shaped, uninucleate, and lack striations. They are primarily found in the walls of organs like the stomach, bladder, and blood vessels. Function: Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary movements, such as moving food through the digestive tract. Contractions are slow and sustained. Key Characteristics: Involuntary, non-striated, and visceral. They contract and relax in layers—circular and longitudinal. LESSON 7: Movement Disorders Parkinson’s Disease: - Symptoms: Rigidity, tremors, slow movements, difficulty initiating actions. - Cause: Loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra, which affects motor control. - Result: Decreased movement stimulation in the motor cortex. Huntington’s Disease: - Symptoms: Uncontrolled jerking movements, tremors, difficulty with voluntary movements, and psychological disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety). - Cause: Brain damage, particularly in the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus, leading to abnormal movement patterns. Physiological Psychology_Finals_AB Psych MODULE 6: Homeostasis LESSON 1: Biological Drives - Motivated to Survive 1.1 Homeostasis Homeostasis refers to the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes, which is essential for survival. This self-regulating process ensures that critical systems of the body remain within optimal ranges, such as: Body temperature Fluid balance Blood pH Oxygen levels Warm-blooded animals, in particular, are highly developed in terms of maintaining homeostasis. They must regulate body temperature, fluid balance, and nutrition, using energy for processes such as: Locomotion: Seeking food and water. Body temperature regulation: Using calories to generate heat or cool down. Cell membrane function: Maintaining electrolyte balance and neutral pH. Homeostasis also involves the body’s defense mechanisms, such as: Reflex actions like coughing, blinking, or withdrawing from pain. Immune responses to pathogens, which are enhanced by acute stress (cortisol and adrenaline) but weakened by chronic stress and high cortisol levels. 1.2 Temperature Regulation Temperature refers to the measure of heat and is an essential factor in maintaining homeostasis. It is typically measured in three scales: - Fahrenheit (°F): Used in the U.S. and some other countries. - Celsius (°C): Standard in most of the world and in scientific contexts. - Kelvin (K): The absolute scale, with 0 K representing absolute zero, used in scientific measurement. The body regulates its temperature to stay within a narrow range that is necessary for proper functioning. This involves processes like sweating, shivering, and adjusting blood flow to the skin. 1.3 Sleep and its Biological Drives Sleep is crucial for maintaining homeostasis, and it occurs in different stages, each with unique EEG patterns: Stage 1: Alpha waves appear, transitioning to a lighter stage of sleep with low voltage, high-frequency signals. Stage 2: Characterized by sleep spindles and K complexes, with a slightly higher amplitude and lower frequency than Stage 1. Stage 3: Defined by delta waves, the largest and slowest EEG waves, indicating deep, restorative sleep. Sleep stages alternate between NREM (non-REM) and REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep: NREM Sleep: Includes Stage 1, 2, and 3 sleep. Stage 3 is often referred to as slow-wave sleep (SWS), as it is characterized by delta waves. REM Sleep: Associated with rapid eye movements and dreaming. It is crucial for memory consolidation, mood regulation, and cognitive function. Physiological Psychology_Finals_AB Psych Circadian Rhythms Definition: Circadian rhythms are biological processes that cycle roughly every 24 hours in response to the regular cycle of light and dark. These rhythms help organisms adapt to daily environmental changes. Free-Running Rhythms: When an organism is isolated from external time cues (like light), its circadian rhythm continues, but it may not perfectly align with the 24-hour day. This period is called the free-running period, which for humans is typically around 24.2 hours. Factors: The biological clock may run slower than 24 hours unless it is entrained (synchronized) by environmental cues (e.g., light exposure). Sleep Disorders Drug Dependency Insomnia: Caused by the side effects of increasing doses of sleeping medication. Sleep Apnea: Characterized by pauses in breathing during sleep. Narcolepsy: A disorder where individuals experience uncontrollable sleep attacks, often accompanied by symptoms like: - Cataplexy: Sudden muscle weakness or paralysis, often triggered by strong emotions. - Sleep Paralysis: The inability to move or speak when waking up or falling asleep. - Hypnagogic Hallucinations: Vivid dreams or hallucinations while falling asleep. Hunger and Eating Behavior Purpose of Hunger: Hunger motivates eating to provide the body with energy and building blocks (amino acids, glucose, fats) needed for survival. Digestion: The breakdown of food into: - Lipids (fats), Amino Acids (from proteins), and Glucose (from carbohydrates). Energy Storage: The body stores energy in: - Fats (most common storage form) - Glycogen (lesser amounts) - Proteins (small amounts) Phases of Energy Metabolism: 1. Cephalic Phase: The preparation for eating, triggered by the sight or smell of food. 2. Absorptive Phase: Energy from food is absorbed and used to meet immediate needs. 3. Fasting Phase: The body uses stored energy when food is not available. Satiety: The feeling of fullness that signals to stop eating. Thirst Purpose of Thirst: Thirst is the body's response to the need for hydration, maintaining fluid homeostasis. Fluid Deficits: Thirst can be triggered by a loss of fluids from: o Intracellular (within cells) and extracellular (in the spaces between cells) compartments. Hormonal Regulation: Thirst is influenced by hormones like vasopressin and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, which help conserve body fluids. Sex and Reproduction Sexual Differentiation: The development of sexual characteristics is influenced by gonadal hormones. - Testosterone (male) and estradiol (female) are the primary sex hormones. - The gonads (testes and ovaries) produce sperm and ova. Physiological Psychology_Finals_AB Psych Chromosomal Basis: Females have XX chromosomes, males have XY chromosomes. The presence of a Y chromosome determines male development. Types of Hormones: 1. Amino Acid Derivative Hormones (e.g., epinephrine) 2. Peptide and Protein Hormones (e.g., insulin) 3. Steroid Hormones (e.g., testosterone, estrogen) Substance Abuse and Addiction Drug Mechanisms: - Agonists: Drugs that enhance the effects of neurotransmitters. - Antagonists: Drugs that block the effects of neurotransmitters. - Mixed Agonist-Antagonists: Drugs that act as both agonists and antagonists at different doses. Types of Substances: 1. Opiates (e.g., heroin, morphine): Relieve pain and produce relaxation, but are highly addictive. 2. Marijuana: Contains THC, which has psychoactive effects. 3. Alcohol: Depressant that can lead to addiction and organ damage with excessive use. Stimulants: - Amphetamines: Increase dopamine release. - Cocaine: Blocks the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. - Nicotine: Stimulates acetylcholine receptors, increasing dopamine release. Hallucinogens: Drugs like LSD that distort perception, often by affecting serotonin receptors. Stages of Addiction Development Initial Drug Taking: People may try drugs due to curiosity, social pressures, or perceived benefits (e.g., stress relief, increased alertness). Habitual Drug Use: The transition to addiction involves repeated use. Positive-incentive theories suggest addiction is driven by the anticipated pleasure of drug use (craving), even if the pleasure of the drug decreases over time. Relapse: Addiction often leads to relapse, even after long periods of abstinence. Factors contributing to relapse include: 1. Stress 2. Drug priming (a single dose after a period of abstinence) 3. Environmental cues (places, people, or things associated with drug use) REMEMBER: Circadian Rhythms are affected by external cues (like light) and regulate sleep, alertness, and body functions. Hunger involves physiological processes to ensure the body has energy through digestion and storage. Thirst is regulated by fluid balance mechanisms and is essential for survival. Sexual Differentiation depends on chromosomes and hormones, with specific roles played by androgens and estrogens. Substance Abuse involves drugs that can alter neurotransmission, leading to addiction and psychological changes. Addiction involves a transition from initial use to habitual use, with the potential for relapse triggered by environmental and physiological cues.