Biology 1406 Final Exam Review F2019 PDF

**[Review Sheet for Biology 1406 Final Exam] - Beth Armstrong** **Realize that this Review sheet is NOT INCLUSIVE -- This is just to give you some ideas of things that you need to focus your studying on but it is no guarantee of what will be on the exam.** **[Exam I Material ]** **[Chapter 1: Stu...

**[Review Sheet for Biology 1406 Final Exam] - Beth Armstrong** **Realize that this Review sheet is NOT INCLUSIVE -- This is just to give you some ideas of things that you need to focus your studying on but it is no guarantee of what will be on the exam.** **[Exam I Material ]** **[Chapter 1: Studying Life] ( Sections 1.1- 1.2)** - **Understand and be able to describe the parts of the Scientific Method / how it works** - **What is a Hypothesis** - **What is a null hypothesis** - **What is the independent variable** - **What is the dependent variable** - **What are replicates and why are they important** - **When you analyze your data can you prove your hypothesis** - **What are the main parts of the Cell Theory?** - **Compare inductive and deductive reasoning and give examples of each** - **What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative measurements** - **Given a scenario, be prepared to identify the following: observation, hypothesis, null hypothesis, independent variable, dependent variable, experimental "treatment" group, control group, constants, data, conclusions** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **[Chapter 2 - Small Molecules and the Chemistry of Life ]** - **Matter** - **Atoms** - **Atomic number** - **Atomic mass** - **Isotope** - **Octet Rule** - **valence number** - **electronegativity** - **What is the difference between an element and a compound?** - **What are the parts of an atom?** - **What are Isotopes?** - **What are Valence electrons?** - **Understand Periodicity of the periodic table** - **What do the Rows tell you? -** - **What do the Columns tell you ( for A groups) --** - **Define these types of Chemical Bonds - ( and be able to differentiate between them)** - **Ionic** - **Covalent** - **Non polar** - **Polar** - **Hydrogen** - **What is a polar molecule?** - **What type of bond holds two water molecules together?** - **What type of bond holds the Oxygen and Hydrogen atoms within a molecule of water together?** - **What are the important properties of Water?** - **What is Adhesion?** - **What is Cohesion?** - **Why does ice float?** - **Why is this important?** - **Why does salt dissolve in water but oil does not?** - **What is Chromotography and how does it separate the components of a mixture/ solution?** - **Understand the pH scale** - **Acidic solutions are \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ pH range** - **Neutral solutions are \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_pH** - **Basic or Alkaline solutions are \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ pH range** - **What is a buffer and how does it work?** - **Given the information below, be able to calculate both \[H+\] and \[OH-\] concentrations for a solution as well as pH and pOH of the solutions** - **\[H^+^\] x \[OH^-^\] = 1 x 10^-14^** - **Use to calculate concentrations of H+ or OH- ions** - **pH + pOH = 14** - **Use to calculate pH and pOH** **A solution with a pH of 5 would have a \[OH\] of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_?** **[Chapter 3 -- Proteins Carbohydrates and Lipids]** **&** **[Chapter 4 -- Nucleic Acids (Section 4.1 ONLY) ]** - **Name and recognize by sight four ways in which the atomic structure of carbon allows for enormous variability in organic compounds** - **Describe the binding capacities (valences) of C,H,O,N** - **For each of the functional groups: recognize by sight/verbal description, describe how the group will interact with water molecules, describe its functional properties, be prepared to recognize or give an example of each in a biological molecule** - **Hydroxyl group** - **--Carbonyl group** - **--Carboxyl group** - **--Amino group** - **--Sulfhydryl group** - **--Phosphate group** - **--Methyl group** - **List the three types of isomers and define them** - **List the Four major types of organic molecules and macromolecules** **1** **2.** **3.** **4.** - **Need to know all 4 *and be able to recognize their structure*** - **What is a monomer?** - **What is a polymer?** - **What are the four key functions of saccharides (carbohydrates)?** - **What functional group defines a reducing sugar?** - **What type of monomers make up disaccharides and starches?** - **How do starches differ from disaccharides?** - **What is dehydration synthesis?** - **What is a condensation reaction?** - **What are some of the major functions of proteins?** - **What type of monomers make up proteins?** - **What kind of functional groups do these monomers have?** - **What are the monomers in a triglyceride?** - **What class of lipid stores more energy than any other kind of biomolecule?** - **What is the difference between an oil and a fat?** - **what is the difference between saturated and unsaturated lipids?**   **For the images above** **What are the molecules? What main group of macromolecules do they make up?**  **For the images below** **What are these groups of atoms called?** **What is the name for each specific group?** **In what type of macromolecules are each of these found ?** **What category of molecules are phospholipids** **What category of molecule is a steroid** **Know and be able to explain the Four Levels of Structure for proteins** **What factors affect the initial folding and stability of proteins?** **What environmental factors can affect the structure of a protein?** **What does denature mean?** **What are the differences between DNA and RNA?** **What category of molecule are DNA and RNA?** **[EXAM 2 Material]** **[Chapter 5-- The Cell] (Sections 5.1 -- 5.4)** - **What are some of the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?** - **What are some of the differences between plant and animal cells?** - **What are some of the arguments supporting the bacterial origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts?**  **[For the images above ]** - **Identify as Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic** - **Identify as Plant or Animal** - **Describe the intercellular junction, the plasmodesmata, in plants** - **Describe the three types of intercellular junctions in animal cells** **[Chapter 6 -- Membranes] ( Sections 6.1, 6.3 -- 6.5)** - **Know the main components of Biological Membranes and [LIST their function]** - **Phospholipid -** - **Glycoprotein -** - **Glycolipid --** - **Differentiate between the types of Membrane Proteins and [know what their function is]** - **Transmembrane** - **Lipid Anchor** - **Covalently bound to membrane** - **Peripheral** - **Noncovalently bound to membrane** - **Membranes bound to ECM or Cytoskeleton** - **Membrane Transport Understand how things move through membranes \-- with and without proteins / with and without energy / individual molecules and large quantities** - **Passive transport** - **Passive/Simple Diffusion** - **Small, uncharged, gasses, H20** - **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_the gradient (high solute to low solute concentration)** - **Facilitated diffusion** - **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_the gradient** - **Requires \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_protein** - **Large, charged, Ions** - **Active transport** - **Requires \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ protein and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** - **Moves\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_the gradient** - **Endocytosis** - **Receptor mediated endocytosis** - **Exocytosis** - **Pinocytosis** - **Phagocytosis** - **Fluid mosaic model** - **Semi-fluid** - **List Factors affecting fluidity** - **Length of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** - **Presence of 1) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** - **Presence of 2) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** - **Temperature** - - **Define these terms and be able to differentiate between them** - **Diffusion -** - **Passive transport -** - **Facilitated diffusion-** - **Active Transport-** - **Osmosis \--** - **Hypertonic solution-** - **Hypotonic solution-** - **Isotonic solution-** - **Plasmolysis --** - **If you are given solutions and a semi permeable membrane, be able to determine the direction of movement for each molecule in the system.** **[For the image given] -- [( starch solution is in the dialysis ]** [ **tubing, lugols is in the water solution outside the bag)**] - **What are the tonicities of the solutions?** - **Which direction are the solutes moving? Why?** - **Which direction is the water moving? Why?** - **Which solutes are unable to move? Why** **[Chapter 7 -- Cell Signalling] ( Sections 7.1 & 7.2 only)** - **List the three methods of direct communication in animal and plant cells** - **Describe the three phases of cell signaling** - **List three categories of membrane proteins that function as receptors in the process of cell signaling** - **Describe how intracellular receptors differ from membrane receptors in cell signaling** - **List three responses that may result from cell signaling** **[Chapter 16 Viruses] ( Section 16.3 ONLY )** - **List two components all viruses have and another component that some viruses have** - **Explain why most scientists do not consider viruses to be alive** - **Explain the lytic cycle of bacteriophages** - **Explain the lysogenic cycle of bacteriophages** - **What types of genetic material can viruses have?** - **How are viruses classified in terms of their genetic material?** - **Explain the infectious cycle of retroviruses** - **[Define the following terms ]** **[Chapter 8 -- Energy, Enzymes, Metabolism]** - **List the first two laws of thermodynamics and explain how living things obey these laws** - **Categorize dehydration synthesis reactions, hydrolysis reactions, photosynthesis and cellular respiration as either exergonic or endergonic** - ** Given an endergonic or exergonic process/reaction, predict what will happen to entropy and free energy levels** - ** Describe how exergonic and endergonic reactions are coupled via energy intermediates** - ** Describe the structures of the ATP/ADP molecules** - ** Describe how the cycling of ATP/ADP provides energy for chemical, transport, and mechanical work in a cell** - **Be able to explain how enzymes work to speed up a reaction** - **Describe the (potentially) four levels of structure of a protein enzyme, and describe how protein enzymes can be denatured** - **Be able to interpret data from enzyme reaction experiments** - **Be able to explain how these 4 factors affect the rate of a reaction in general** - **pH** - **Temperature** - **Substrate Concentration** - **Enzyme concentration** - **Define Denature - when or how does this happen?** - **What is inhibition?** **Differentiate between competitive and noncompetitive inhibition** **[Exam 3 Material ]** **[Chapter 9 -- Cellular Respiration ]** - **Where in the cell does glycolysis occur?** - **What goes in to glycolysis** - **What are the products of glycolysis ?** - **Where in the cell does Kreb's Cycle or the Citric Acid Cycle occur?** - **What goes into Kreb's** - **What are the products of the Kreb's cycle?** - **Where in the cell does the Electron Transport Chain occur?** - **What goes into the Electron Transport Chain?** - **What are the products of the ETC?** - **How many ATP molecules are produced in glycolysis for each molecule of glucose?** - **Approximately how many ATP are formed theoretically during the complete AEROBIC cellular respiration for each molecule of glucose?** - **Why are these theoretical yields not necessarily reached?** - **Why must cells take in oxygen and release CO~2~?** - **What is the difference between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration?** - **Why is aerobic respiration more efficient than anaerobic respiration?** - **When a molecule accepts an electron, is it chemically reduced or oxidized?** **Be able to fill in the chart below as a review as well as tell where each portion of cellular respiration occurs.** **Why do cells undergo fermentation?** **What are the two types of fermentation** **How do they differ?** **What are the products for each type of fermentation?** **In what type of organisms do each of these processes occur?** **What metabolic process can occur in the presence and/ or in the absence of Oxygen?** **Which process in cellular respiration forms the most energy?** **[Chapter 10 -- Photosynthesis] ( Sections 10.1 -- 10.4)** - **What types of cells are capable of photosynthesis?** - **Where in eukaryotic cells does photosynthesis occur?** - **What are the two main Reactions in Photosynthesis called?** - **Where do the Light Dependent Reactions occur?** - **What goes into the Light Reactions?** - **What are the products of the Light reactions?** - **Are there any other names for the Light reactions?** - **Where do the Light Independent Reactions occur?** - **What goes into the Light Independent Reactions?** - **What are the products of the Light Reactions?** - **Are there any other names for the Light Independent Reactions?** - **Why are plants green? (Why is chlorophyll green?)** - **How does having multiple photosynthetic pigments affect a plant's ability to synthesize glucose?** - **Where does the Oxygen come from in photosynthesis?** - **What is the best color of light for photosynthesis?** - **How do pigments work?** - **Why do plants have more than one pigment?** - **What happens if a plant gets too hot and dry?** **What are the differences between C3, C4 , and CAM plants?** **Understand how the two main reactions of photosynthesis work and how they produce food for the plant** **Be able to label the parts of the chloroplast as well as tell where each portion of photosynthesis occurs.**  **[Chapters 11 -- Mitosis / Meiosis Cell Division ]** - **What are some of the ways that binary fission differs from eukaryotic mitosis?** - **How are they alike?** - **What are the stages in the eukaryotic cell cycle?** - **What are the stages in Interphase?** - **What is occurring in each part of interphase?** - **What are the stages in mitosis?** - **What is the purpose of mitosis?** - **What is the final outcome or product(s) of mitosis?** - **What type of cells do these divisions occur in ?** - **Make sure that you can identify each stage in mitosis and know what is occurring in each stage** - **In a human cell, how many chromosomes are present in the G~1~ stage of interphase? At metaphase?** - **What is the difference between a chromosome and a chromatid?** - **What are the major differences between mitosis and meiosis?** **Think specifically about lists I gave in the ppts** - **Make sure that you can differentiate between the two types of division** - **What is the purpose of Meiosis?** - **What is the final outcome of Meiosis?** - **What type of cells does Meiosis occur in?** - **Make sure that you could identify each stage in meiosis and know what is occurring in each** - **In human cells, how many chromosomes and chromatids are present in a cell in prophase I? After telophase I? After telophase II?** - **What are the benefits to exchanging genetic material between homologous chromosomes?** - **Define** - **Nondisjunction-** - **Aneuploidy -** - **Polyploidy -** - **What type of disorders are examples of non-disjunction in humans** - **Give examples of Genetic disorders that are "Large Scale"**  **Mitosis** **[Make sure you can identify the stages for each stage in mitosis or meiosis as shown above or by description or be able to put them in order]**  **Be able to explain the differences between Mitosis and Meiosis** **Be able to list or describe what occurs in each stage** **What would happen if the centromeres did not attach to the spindle fibers** **What would happen if the DNA did not condense before division?** **Etc. etc. Think of how this could go wrong** **[Exam 4 Material ]** **[Chapter 12 -- Mendel and the gene]** **Define/ know these terms:** - **gene** - **allele,** - **phenotype,** - **genotype** - **true breeding** - **Hybrid** - **Homozygote** - **Heterozygote** **For the terms below** **Be able to define them - know what they mean** **Be able to differentiate between examples and identify any of them** - **Complete Dominance** - **Incomplete Dominance** - **Co-Dominance** - **Epistasis** - **Discrete vs Quantitative traits** - **Polygenic traits** - **Affects of environment on expression** - **Sex linked genes** **List Mendels two laws and be able to apply them** - **Law of segregation** **What type of cross demonstrates this law?** - **Law of Independent assortment** **What type of cross demonstrates this law?** **Make sure that you can:** **determine gametes for any given parental line.** **accurately do Monohybrid and Dihybrid crosses** **Work genetics problems like we did in class for monohybrid and or dihybrid traits** **Be able to look at pedigree and analyze them to determine possible genotypes, phenotypes, of individuals as well as whether the trait is dominant, recessive, autosomal, sex-linked etc.** ***Remember the hints on the powerpoint for pedigrees / also mentioned in class*** **- If it skips a generation or if a child has it when neither parent has it, it is likely a** **Recessive allele.** - **Dominant alleles do not skip generations** - **If a child has the trait then at least one parent MUST also have that trait** - **Sex linked (X- linked genes) are passed from mother to son** - ***A father CANNOT pass an X-linked trait to his son (If it goes from Father to son, it is NOT X- Linked)*** - ***Men CANNOT be carriers for an X-linked trait ( they either have it or they do not)*** - ***The only way a female can get an X-linked trait is if their father has the trait AND their mother has it or is a carrier*** **- Sex influenced are dominant in one sex and recessive in the other.** - **How do the exceptions by some of these to normal Mendelian genetics affect the normal expected genetic ratios?** - **If given phenotypes for an individual, be able to generate possible genotypes** - **If given the genotype for an individual, be able to tell the phenotype like in your lab manual** **What is the phenotype of a person with the genotype ccWwtt** **Know what Linked genes are. What does that mean?** **What is a recombinant phenotype?** **What is a linkage map?** **Are all genes located in the Nucleus for Eukaryotes?** **What is the relationship of Crossing over to genetic recombination?** **What are Barr Bodies?** ***Look back at the Lab Exam \#3 review and end of Chapter notes for sample problems and or Sample pedigrees.*** **[Chapter 13 -- Molecular Basis of Inheritance] --( Nucleotide structure and replication)** **Fundamental Structure of Nucleotides -- DNA / RNA** - **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Backbone** - **Know how to count carbons** - **DNA Replication \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_direction** - **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_bond between the nucleic acids in the one strand (where the bonds are Phosphate-Carbon 5'\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\>3')** - **Direction of Strands is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** **Be familiar with the main scientists and experiments that helped determine DNA genetic material as well as the structure of DNA** **Griffith Experiment** **Avery & McLoud Experiment** **Hershey & Chase Experiment** **Chargoff Rule (A=T, G=C)** **Rosalind Franklin Experiment** **\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is the method of Replication for DNA** **How does this process work?** **Know/ List the function for each enzymes (and other components) utilized in DNA replication** **Topoisomerase** **Single Strand Binding Protein (SSRB)** **DNA Primase (used for RNA Primer)** **RNA Primers** **DNA Ligase** **DNA Polymerase** **telomerase** **Know how replication proceeds and what each of the below is as well as how it functions in the process** **Origin of Replication- Eukaryotes & Prokaryotes** **Replication Fork** **Leading Strand** **Lagging Strand** **Okazaki Fragments** **Bidirectional Replication** **Deoxyribose nucleotide Triphosphates** **What are the Proofreading mechanism in Eukaryotes during replication?** **DNA Repair** **\*Direct, Nucleotide excision repair ( i.e. Thymine Dimers)** **What is a Telomere?** **What is the function of Telomerase?** **Why is Telomerase important in linear chromosomes?** **[If you are given one strand of DNA, make sure you could give the complementary strand *including the directions for the strands*]** **Why does Chargaff's Rule exist? What causes it? (Why are the base pairs in nucleotides specific in their binding?)** **What is a purine?** **Which base pairs are purines** **What is a pyrimidine?** **Which base pairs are pyrimidines** **[Chapter 14 - Gene Expression]** **What is the Central Dogma?** **\*Know /Understand the Three stages of Transcription and what is going on in each ( list them below)** **Initiation -** **Elongation -** **Termination -** **Be able to explain what occurs in RNA processing in Eukaryotes and what the benefit is** **Splicing / alternative splicing etc** **\*\*\*Make sure that you understand what occurs in each stage of TRANSLATION** **Initiation -** **Elongation -** **Termination -** **\*\*\*Make sure that you know the components required for TRANSLATION and their role** **mRNA** **Codon** **tRNA** **Ribosomes** **\*A,P,E site** **Codons are located on \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_** **What does "Degenerate code" refer to** - **How are mRNA and tRNA different? How are they alike?** - **What are the four nucleotides in DNA?** - **What are the four nucleotides in RNA?** - **What is the purpose of RNA polymerase?** - **How does the backbone sugar differ between DNA and RNA?** - **What is the purpose of the ribosome?** - **What type of bond holds amino acids together in a polypeptide?** - **What is the start codon? What amino acid does it encode?** - **What are the 3 stop codons?** **[\*\*If given a template sequence of DNA be able to determine the appropriate mRNA formed as well as the amino acid sequence that would be formed. ]** - **You do not have to have the genetic code memorized, but must be able to use the codon table to determine the amino acid for each codon.** **What is meant by the term " Reading Frame" and why is it important?** **Where does Transcription start?** **Where does translation start?** **When does translation STOP?** **What are the 4 special Codons I told you to learn? What do they mean/ or do?** **[Chapter 15 - Mutations] ( Only covers Sections 15.1, 15.2)** **Define/ Understand the Types of Mutations** **Point mutations,** **Silent Mutations** **Missense mutation** **Nonsense mutation** **substitutions,** **addition,** **deletion,** **frameshift** **Which one of the above type of mutations has the potential to cause the most damage?** **Know the Difference between/ understand** **Spontaneous and Induced Mutation** **Germ line vs Somatic Mutations** **Loss of Function vs Gain of Function Mutations** **Reversion Mutation** **Are mutations outside the coding region harmless?** **Know what a Chromosomal Mutation is and types** **Deletion** **Duplication** **Inversion** **Translocation** **What type of mutation is sickle cell? How does this mutation affect the individual?** **Are all mutations good? / bad?** **[Last Chapter that will be on Final Exam ( after Exam 4)]** **[Chapter 16 - Gene Regulation] ( Only covers Sections 16.1, 16.2, some of 16.4 ) *We already covered 16.3 for Exam 2*** **List the Benefits of gene regulation** - **Regulation in Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes ( what extra level of regulation is found in eukaryotes?)** **What is the difference between Repressible ( Trp Operon ) vs Inducible Operons (Lac Operon)** **Transcriptional regulation -- for Lac Prokaryotic Operon** **What happens in each of these situations?** **1)High Glucose High Lactose** **2)High Glucose Low Lactose** **3)Low Glucose Low Lactose** **4)Low Glucose High Lactose** **How do each of these work as Repressors/Activators? What is their role?** **CAP** **cAMP** **isolactate** **Know the parts of core Promoter region in Eukaryotic genes** **TATA Box in Eukaryotes** **Initiation site** **What are activators?** **What are enhancers?** **What does DNA methylation / acetylation do?** **What effect would remodeling the chromatin have on gene expression?** **Study hard. Hope this helps !!!** **Beth Armstrong** **oHH**