Research Methodology Textbook PDF

Research Methodology 3rd edition Written specifically for students with no previous experience of research and research methodology, the...

Research Methodology 3rd edition Written specifically for students with no previous experience of research and research methodology, the third edition of Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners integrates various quantitative and qualitative methodologies into eight practice-based steps, providing lots of examples throughout to link theory with practice. The writing style is simple and clear and the author presents this complex subject in a straightforward way that empowers readers to tackle research with confidence. arch Rese ology This new edition has taken the bold step of breaking down the wall between quantitative and qualitative methods and provides methodologies for both modes of enquiry side-by- side in the eight-step process. The book has been revised and updated to include extended coverage of qualitative research methods in addition to existing comprehensive coverage od of quantitative methods. There are also brand new learning features such as reflective Meth questions throughout the text to help students consolidate their knowledge. The book contains practical and easy-to-follow guidance on: Formulating a research problem Selecting a sample Reviewing the literature Ethical considerations in research for beginners Choosing a study design Displaying analysed data y-step guide a step-b Writing a research proposal Writing a research report Collecting and analysing Research and practice evaluation. qualitative and quantitative data The book is essential reading for undergraduate and postgraduate students in the social sciences embarking on quantitative or qualitative research projects. 3 rd Dr Ranjit Kumar taught at Curtin University of Technology and the University edition of Western Australia for 30 years. He is currently a freelance researcher and evaluation consultant in Western Australia. Ranjit Kumar Cover iillustration & design by Naomi C Robinson i t K u m a r Ranj  earch Res ology Metho d eginners de for b step-by-step gui a 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 1 20/10/2010 2:30:09 PM  SAGE has been part of the global academic community since 1965, supporting high quality research and learning that transforms society and our understanding of individuals, groups, and cultures. SAGE is the independent, innovative, natural home for authors, editors and societies who share our commitment and passion for the social sciences. Find out more at: www.sagepublications.com 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 2 20/10/2010 2:30:09 PM  3rd edition earch Res ology Meth od eginners e for b tep-by-step guid as m ar Ranjit Ku 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 3 20/10/2010 2:30:10 PM  © Ranjit Kumar 1999, 2005, 2011 First edition published 1999 Second edition published 2005. Reprinted 2007, 2008 (twice), 2009 (twice) This third edition published 2011 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. SAGE Publications Ltd 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP SAGE Publications Inc. 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road New Delhi 110 044 SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd 33 Pekin Street #02-01 Far East Square Singapore 048763 Library of Congress Control Number available British Library Cataloguing in Publication data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-84920-300-5 ISBN 978-1-84920-301-2 (pbk) Typeset by C&M Digitals (P) Ltd, Chennai, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall Printed on paper from sustainable resources SGS 24 82 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 4 20/10/2010 2:30:10 PM  v To my daughter, Parul 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 5 20/10/2010 2:30:10 PM 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 6 20/10/2010 2:30:10 PM  Contents List of figures xv List of tables xviii Preface xix 1 Research: a way of thinking 1 Research: an integral part of your practice 1 Research: a way to gather evidence for your practice 4 Applications of research 4 Research: what does it mean? 5 The research process: characteristics and requirements 8 Types of research 9 Types of research: application perspective 10 Types of research: objectives perspective 10 Types of research: mode of enquiry perspective 11 Paradigms of research 14 Summary 15 2 The research process: a quick glance 17 The research process: an eight-step model 18 Phase I: deciding what to research 23 Step I: formulating a research problem 23 Phase II : planning a research study 23 Step II: conceptualising a research design 23 Step III: constructing an instrument for data collection 24 Step IV: selecting a sample 25 Step V: writing a research proposal 25 Phase III: conducting a research study 26 Step VI: collecting data 26 Step VII: processing and displaying data 26 Step VIII: writing a research report 27 Summary 27 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 7 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM  viii R e s e arc h M e t h o d o lo gy STEP I FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM 29 3 Reviewing the literature 31 The place of the literature review in research 31 Bringing clarity and focus to your research problem 32 Improving your research methodology 32 Broadening your knowledge base in your research area 33 Enabling you to contextualise your findings 33 How to review the literature 33 Searching for the existing literature 34 Reviewing the selected literature 37 Developing a theoretical framework 38 Developing a conceptual framework 40 Writing about the literature reviewed 40 Summary 42 4 Formulating a research problem 43 The research problem 44 The importance of formulating a research problem 44 Sources of research problems 45 Considerations in selecting a research problem 47 Steps in formulating a research problem 48 The formulation of research objectives 50 The study population 55 Establishing operational definitions 55 Formulating a research problem in qualitative research 57 Summary 58 5 Identifying variables 61 What is a variable? 62 The difference between a concept and a variable 63 Converting concepts into variables 64 Types of variable 66 From the viewpoint of causal relationship 66 From the viewpoint of the study design 71 From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement 72 Types of measurement scale 73 The nominal or classificatory scale 76 The ordinal or ranking scale 76 The interval scale 77 The ratio scale 77 Summary 78 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 8 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM  Co n t e n t s ix 6 Constructing hypotheses 81 The definition of a hypothesis 81 The functions of a hypothesis 83 The testing of a hypothesis 83 The characteristics of a hypothesis 84 Types of hypothesis 85 Errors in testing a hypothesis 87 Hypotheses in qualitative research 88 Summary 89 STEP II⠇⠇ CONCEPTUALISING A RESEARCH DESIGN 91 7 The research design 93 What is a research design? 94 The functions of a research design 94 The theory of causality and the research design 95 Summary 101 8 Selecting a study design 103 Differences between quantitative and qualitative study designs 103 Study designs in quantitative research 105 Study designs based on the number of contacts 105 Study designs based on the reference period 111 Study designs based on the nature of the investigation 113 Other designs commonly used in quantitative research 122 The cross-over comparative experimental design 123 The replicated cross-sectional design 124 Trend studies 124 Cohort studies 125 Panel studies 125 Blind studies 126 Double-blind studies 126 Study designs in qualitative research 126 Case study 126 Oral history 127 Focus groups/group interviews 127 Participant observation 128 Holistic research 129 Community discussion forums 129 Reflective journal log 130 Other commonly used philosophy-guided designs 130 Action research 131 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 9 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM  x R e s e arc h M e t h o d o lo gy Feminist research 132 Participatory and collaborative research enquiry 132 Summary 133 STEP III⠇⠇CONSTRUCTING AN INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION 135 9 Selecting a method of data collection 137 Differences in the methods of data collection in quantitative and ⠇⠇ qualitative research 138 Major approaches to information gathering 138 Collecting data using primary sources 140 Observation 140 The interview 144 The questionnaire 145 Constructing a research instrument in quantitative research 156 Asking personal and sensitive questions 156 The order of questions 158 Pre-testing a research instrument 158 Prerequisites for data collection 159 Methods of data collection in qualitative research 159 Constructing a research instrument in qualitative research 162 Collecting data using secondary sources 163 Problems with using data from secondary sources 163 Summary 164 10 Collecting data using attitudinal scales 167 Measurement of attitudes in quantitative and qualitative research 167 Attitudinal scales in quantitative research 168 Functions of attitudinal scales 168 Difficulties in developing an attitudinal scale 169 Types of attitudinal scale 170 The summated rating or Likert scale 170 The equal-appearing interval or Thurstone scale 174 The cumulative or Guttman scale 175 Attitudinal scales and measurement scales 175 Attitudes and qualitative research 175 Summary 175 11 Establishing the validity and reliability of a research instrument 177 The concept of validity 178 Types of validity in quantitative research 179 Face and content validity 179 Concurrent and predictive validity 180 Construct validity 180 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 10 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM  CONTENTS xi The concept of reliability 181 Factors affecting the reliability of a research instrument 182 Methods of determining the reliability of an instrument in quantitative research 182 External consistency procedures 182 Internal consistency procedures 183 Validity and reliability in qualitative research 184 Summary 186 STEP IV⠇⠇ SELECTING A SAMPLE 189 12 Selecting a sample 191 The differences between sampling in quantitative and qualitative research 192 Sampling in quantitative research 193 The concept of sampling 193 Sampling terminology 194 Principles of sampling 194 Factors affecting the inferences drawn from a sample 197 Aims in selecting a sample 197 Types of sampling 197 Non-random/non-probability sampling designs in ⠇⠇ quantitative research 206 Systematic sampling design: a ‘mixed’ design 208 The calculation of sample size 209 Sampling in qualitative research 212 The concept of saturation point in qualitative research 213 Summary 213 STEP V⠇⠇ WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 215 13 How to write a research proposal 217 The research proposal in quantitative and qualitative research 217 Contents of a research proposal 218 Preamble/introduction 220 The problem 222 Objectives of the study 224 Hypotheses to be tested 226 Study design 227 The setting 230 Measurement procedures 230 Ethical issues 231 Sampling 231 Analysis of data 232 Structure of the report 235 Problems and limitations 236 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 11 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM  xii R e s e arc h M e t h o d o lo gy Appendix 237 Work schedule 237 Summary 237 STEP VI⠇⠇ COLLECTING DATA 239 14 Considering ethical issues in data collection 241 Ethics: the concept 241 Stakeholders in research 243 Ethical issues to consider concerning research participants 244 Collecting information 244 Seeking consent 244 Providing incentives 245 Seeking sensitive information 245 The possibility of causing harm to participants 245 Maintaining confidentiality 246 Ethical issues to consider relating to the researcher 246 Avoiding bias 246 Provision or deprivation of a treatment 246 Using inappropriate research methodology 247 Incorrect reporting 247 Inappropriate use of the information 247 Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring organisation 247 Restrictions imposed by the sponsoring organisation 247 The misuse of information 248 Summary 248 STEP VII⠇⠇ PROCESSING and displaying DATA 251 15 Processing data 253 Part one: Data processing in quantitative studies 255 Editing 255 Coding 256 Part two: Data processing in qualitative studies 277 Content analysis in qualitative research – an example 279 The role of statistics in research 288 Summary 288 16 Displaying data 291 Methods of communicating and displaying analysed data 291 Text 292 Tables 292 Graphs 297 Summary 308 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 12 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM  CONTENTS xiii STEP VIII⠇⠇ WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT 311 17 Writing a research report 313 Writing a research report 313 Developing an outline 314 Writing about a variable 319 Referencing 320 Writing a bibliography 321 Summary 321 18 Research methodology and practice evaluation 323 What is evaluation? 324 Why evaluation? 325 Intervention–development–evaluation process 327 Perspectives in the classification of evaluation studies 328 Types of evaluation from a focus perspective 329 Evaluation for programme/intervention planning 330 Process/monitoring evaluation 332 Evaluating participation of the target population 333 Evaluating service delivery manner 335 Impact/outcome evaluation 337 Cost–benefit/cost-effectiveness evaluation 341 Types of evaluation from a philosophical perspective 342 Goal-centred/objective-oriented evaluation 342 Consumer-oriented/client-centred evaluation 342 Improvement-oriented evaluation 343 Holistic/illuminative evaluation 343 Undertaking an evaluation: the process 343 Step 1: Determining the purpose of evaluation 343 Step 2: Developing objectives or evaluation questions 344 Step 3: Converting concepts into indicators into variables 347 Step 4: Developing evaluation methodology 350 Step 5: Collecting data 350 Step 6: Analysing data 350 Step 7: Writing an evaluation report 351 Step 8: Sharing findings with stakeholders 351 Involving stakeholders in evaluation 351 Ethics in evaluation 352 Summary 353 Appendix: Developing a research project: a set of exercises for beginners 355 Glossary 377 Bibliography 403 Index 409 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 13 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 14 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM  Figures 1.1 The applications of research 6 1.2 Types of research 9 2.1 The research journey 19 2.2 The research process 21 2.3 The chapters in the book in relation to the operational steps 22 3.1a Developing a theoretical framework – the relationship between mortality and fertility 39 3.1b Theoretical framework for the study ‘community responsiveness in health’ 40 3.2 Sample of outline of a literature review 41 4.1 Dissecting the subject area of domestic violence into subareas 49 4.2 Steps in formulating a research problem – alcoholism 51 4.3 Formulating a research problem – the relationship between fertility and mortality 52 4.4 Narrowing a research problem – health 53 4.5 Characteristics of objectives 54 5.1 Types of variable 67 5.2 Types of variable in a causal relationship 68 5.3 Independent, dependent and extraneous variables in a causal relationship 68 5.4 Sets of variables in counselling and marriage problems 69 5.5 Independent, dependent, extraneous and intervening variables 70 5.6 Active and attribute variables 71 6.1 The process of testing a hypothesis 84 6.2 Two-by-two factorial experiment to study the relationship between MCH, NS and infant mortality 86 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 15 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM  xvi R e s e arc h M e t h o d o lo gy 6.3 Types of hypothesis 87 6.4 Type I and Type II errors in testing a hypothesis 88 7.1 Factors affecting the relationship between a counselling service and the extent of marital problems 96 7.2 The relationship between teaching models and comprehension 98 7.3 The proportion attributable to the three components may vary markedly 99 7.4 Building into the design 100 8.1 Types of study design 106 8.2 Before-and-after (pre-test/post-test) study design 108 8.3 The regression effect 109 8.4 The longitudinal study design 110 8.5a Retrospective study design 112 8.5b Prospective study design 112 8.5c Retrospective-prospective study design 112 8.6 Experimental and non-experimental studies 113 8.7 Randomisation in experiments 114 8.8 The after-only design 115 8.9 Measurement of change through a before-and-after design 116 8.10 The control experimental design 117 8.11 Double-control designs 119 8.12 Comparative experimental design 121 8.13 The placebo design 122 8.14 The cross-over experimental design 123 8.15 The replicated cross-sectional design 124 8.16 Action research design 131 9.1 Methods of data collection 139 9.2 A three-directional rating scale 143 9.3 Types of interview 144 9.4 Example 1: Where to go? A study of occupational mobility among immigrants 146 9.5 Example 2: Occupational redeployment – a study of occupational redeployment among state government employees 147 9.6 Examples of closed questions 152 9.7 Examples of open-ended questions 153 10.1 An example of a categorical scale 170 10.2 An example of a seven-point numerical scale 171 10.3 An example of a scale with statements reflecting varying 171 degrees of an attitude 10.4 The procedure for constructing a Likert scale 172 10.5 Scoring positive and negative statements 173 10.6 Calculating an attitudinal score 173 10.7 The procedure for constructing the Thurstone scale 174 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 16 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM  F IG U R ES xvii 12.1 The concept of sampling 193 12.2 Types of sampling in quantitative research 198 12.3 The procedure for using a table of random numbers 202 12.4 The procedure for selecting a simple random sample 203 12.5 The procedure for selecting a stratified sample 204 12.6 The concept of cluster sampling 205 12.7 Snowball sampling 208 12.8 The procedure for selecting a systematic sample 209 12.9 Systematic sampling 210 15.1 Steps in data processing 254 15.2 Example of questions from a survey 258 15.3 Some selected responses to the open-ended question in Figure 15.2 267 15.4 Some questions from a survey – respondent 3 270 15.5 Some questions from a survey – respondent 59 271 15.6 Some questions from a survey – respondent 81 272 15.7 An example of coded data on a code sheet 273 15.8 Manual analysis using graph paper 277 16.1 The structure of a table 294 16.2a Two-dimensional histogram 299 16.2b Three-dimensional histogram 299 16.2c Two-dimensional histogram with two variables 300 16.3 Bar charts 300 16.4 The stacked bar chart 301 16.5 The 100 per cent bar chart 302 16.6 The frequency polygon 303 16.7 The cumulative frequency polygon 303 16.8 The stem-and-leaf display 304 16.9 Two- and three-dimensional pie charts 305 16.10 The line diagram or trend curve 306 16.11 The area chart 306 16.12 The scattergram 307 18.1 The concept of evaluation 325 18.2 The intervention–development–evaluation model 327 18.3 Perspectives in the classification of evaluation studies 329 18.4 Aspects of process evaluation 333 18.5 Reflexive control design 339 18.6 Interrupted time-series design 340 18.7 Replicated cross-sectional design 341 18.8 Converting concepts into indicators into variables 348 18.9 An example of converting concepts into questions 349 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 17 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM  Tables 1.1 Types of research studies from the perspective of objectives 12 2.1 Differences between qualitative and quantitative research 20 3.1 Some commonly used electronic databases in public health, 36 sociology, education and business studies 4.1 Aspects of a research problem 46 4.2 Operationalisation of concepts and the study populations 56 5.1 Examples of concepts and variables 64 5.2 Converting concepts into variables 65 5.3 Categorical/continuous and quantitative/qualitative variables 73 5.4 Characteristics and examples of the four measurement scales 75 9.1 Guidelines for constructing a research instrument 157 10.1 The relationship between attitudinal and measurement scales 175 12.1 The difference between sample statistics and the population mean 195 12.2 The difference between a sample and a population average 196 12.3 Selecting a sample using a table for random numbers 201 12.4 Selected elements using the table of random numbers 202 13.1 Developing a time-frame for your study 237 15.1 An example of a code book 260 16.1 Respondents by age (frequency table for one population) 294 16.2 Respondents by age (frequency table comparing two populations) 295 16.3 Respondents by attitude towards uranium mining and age (cross-tabulation) 295 16.4 Attitude towards uranium mining by age and gender 296 16.5 Age and income data 307 18.1 Types of evaluation from the perspective of its focus and the questions they are designed to answer 331 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 18 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM  Preface This book is based upon my experiences in research as a student, practitioner and teacher. The difficulties I faced in understanding research as a student, my discoveries about what was applicable and inapplicable in the field as a practitioner, and my development of the ability effectively to communicate difficult concepts in simple language without sacrificing techni- cality and accuracy as a teacher have become the basis of this book. Research methodology is taught as a supporting subject in several ways in many academic disciplines such as health, education, psychology, social work, nursing, public health, library studies and marketing research. The core philosophical base for this book comes from my conviction that, although these disciplines vary in content, their broad approach to a research enquiry is similar. This book, therefore, is addressed to these academic disciplines. It is true that some disciplines place greater emphasis on quantitative research and some on qualitative research. My own approach to research is a combination of both. Firstly, it is the objective that should decide whether a study be carried out adopting a qualitative or a quantitative approach. Secondly, in real life most research is a combination of both methods. Though they differ in the philosophy that underpins their mode of enquiry, to a great extent their broad approach to enquiry is similar. The quantitative research process is reasonably well structured whereas the qualitative one is fairly unstructured, and these are their respec- tive strengths as well as weaknesses. I strongly believe that both are important to portray a complete picture. In addition, there are aspects of quantitative research that are qualitative in nature. It depends upon how a piece of information has been collected and analysed. Therefore I feel very strongly that a good researcher needs to have both types of skill. I follow a qualitative–quantitative–qualitative approach to an enquiry. This book, therefore, has been written to provide theoretical information in an operational manner about methods, proce- dures and techniques that are used in both approaches. Research as a subject is taught at different levels. The book is designed specifically for students who are newcomers to research and who may have a psychological barrier with regard to the subject. I have therefore not assumed any previous knowledge on the part of the reader; I have omitted detailed discussion of aspects that may be inappropriate for beginners; I have used many flow charts and examples to communicate concepts; and 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 19 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM  xx R e s e arc h M e t h o d o lo gy areas covered in the book follow a ‘simple to complex’ approach in terms of their discussion and coverage. The structure of this book, which is based on the model developed during my teaching career, is designed to be practical. The theoretical knowledge that constitutes research methodology is therefore organised around the operational steps that form this research process for both quan- titative and qualitative research. All the information needed to take a particular step, during the actual research journey, is provided in one place. The needed information is organised in chap- ters and each chapter is devoted to a particular aspect of that step (see Figure 2.3). For example, ‘Formulating a research problem’ is the first operational step in the research process. For for- mulating a ‘good’ research problem, in my opinion, you need to know how to review the literature, formulate a research problem, deal with variables and their measurement, and con- struct hypotheses. Hence, under this step, there are four chapters.The information they provide will enable you to formulate a problem that is researchable. These chapters are titled: ‘Reviewing the literature’,‘Formulating a research problem’,‘Identifying variables’ and ‘Constructing hypotheses’. Similarly, for the operational step, step III, ‘Constructing an instrument for data collection’, the chapters titled ‘Selecting a method of data collection’,‘Collecting data using attitudinal scales’ and ‘Establishing the validity and reliability of a research instrument’ will provide sufficient information for you to develop an instrument for data collection for your study. For every aspect at each step, a smorgasbord of methods, models, techniques and procedures is provided for both quantitative and qualitative studies in order for you to build your knowledge base in research methodology and also to help you to select the most appropriate ones when undertaking your own research. It is my belief that a sound knowledge of research methodology is essential for undertaking a valid study. To answer your research questions, up to Step V, ‘Writing a research proposal’, knowledge of research methods is crucial as this enables you to develop a conceptual frame- work which is sound and has merits for undertaking your research endeavour with confidence. Having completed the preparatory work, the steps that follow are more practical in nature, the quality of which entirely depends upon the soundness of the methodology you proposed in your research proposal. Statistics and computers play a significant role in research but their application is mainly after the data has been collected. To me, statistics are useful in confirm- ing or contradicting conclusions drawn from simply looking at analysed data, in providing an indication of the magnitude of the relationship between two or more variables under study, in helping to establish causality, and in ascertaining the level of confidence that can be placed in your findings. A computer’s application is primarily in data analysis, the calculation of statistics, word processing and the graphic presentation of data. It saves time and makes it easier for you to undertake these activities; however, you need to learn this additional skill. This book does not include statistics or information about computers. The third edition of the book incorporates some of the suggestions made by the reviewers, colleagues and students on the first and second editions. There are some major changes in the third edition: I have taken a very bold step in breaking down, where possible, the wall between qualitative and quantitative research by describing both methodologies parallel to one another within a com- mon framework. A lot more information on qualitative research has been added and integrated with the current eight-step research model. Now, almost each chapter has a new section that is 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 20 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM  P R E FACE xxi specifically devoted to information related to qualitative research pertaining to the main theme of the chapter. For example, Chapter 9, ‘Selecting a method of data collection’, now has a section ‘Methods of data collection in qualitative research’ that specifically discusses the major meth- ods of data collection in qualitative studies. Similarly, Chapter 8, ‘Selecting a study design’, has a section ‘Study designs in qualitative research’ that is devoted to the designs dominantly used in qualitative research. As far as possible each chapter also has information on other aspects of qualitative research along with the existing quantitative body of knowledge. More in-depth field examples, based upon actual experiences, have been incorporated to explain procedures and methods. Exercises, a part of the Appendix, have now been thoroughly revised with the expectation that those who are developing a research project can operationalise the theoretical knowledge in an actual situation to evaluate the application of theory to practice in addition to developing their research project. A glossary of technical terms is a new addition to this edition. This will provide students with readily available definitions and meanings of technical terms in one place. Title pages dividing chapters and operational steps have now been redesigned to provide greater clarity as well as informing students in advance what they are expected to learn in a chapter. Also, each chapter has a list of keywords that students are likely to encounter in the chapter. In places the language has been changed to enhance flow, understanding and ease of reading. I am grateful to a number of people who have helped me in the writing of this book. First of all, to my students, who have taught me how to teach research methods.The basic structure of this book is an outcome of the feedback I have received from them over the years. How, and at what stage of the research process, a concept or a procedure should be taught, I have learnt from my students. I thankfully acknowledge their contribution to this book. I am extremely grateful to a friend and colleague, Dr Norma Watson, whose efforts in edit- ing the first edition were of immense help.The book would not have come to its present stage without her unconditional help. I also thank Professor Denis Ladbrook, a friend and colleague, for his continuous encour- agement and support. Ranjit Kumar 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 21 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM 00-Kumar-4061-Prelims.indd 22 20/10/2010 2:30:11 PM  ChaptefrThin1king Research: A Way o In this chapter you will learn about: some of the reasons for doing research how research can be used to gather evidence to inform your practice the applications of research characteristics and requirements of the research process types of research from the perspective of applications, objectives and enquiry modes Research paradigms Keywords: applied research, controlled, correlational research, descrip- tive research, empirical, explanatory research, exploratory research, evidence-based practice, interpretive paradigm, positivistic paradigm, pure research, qualitative research, quantitative research, reliability, research, structured and unstructured enquiries, systematic, validity. Research: an integral part of your practice Research is undertaken within most professions. More than a set of skills, research is a way of thinking: examining critically the various aspects of your day-to-day professional work; understanding and formulating guiding principles that govern a particular procedure; and developing and testing new theories that contribute to the advancement of your practice and 01-Kumar-4061-CH-01.indd 1 19/10/2010 11:44:29 AM  2 R e s e arc h M e t h o d o lo gy profession. It is a habit of questioning what you do, and a systematic examination of clinical observations to explain and find answers for what you perceive, with a view to instituting appropriate changes for a more effective professional service. Let us take some disciplines as examples. Suppose you are working in the field of health. You may be a front-line service provider, supervisor or health administrator/planner.You may be in a hospital or working as an outreach community health worker.You may be a nurse, doctor, occupational therapist, physiotherapist, social worker or other paramedic. In any of these positions, some of the following questions may come to your mind or someone else may ask you for their answers: How many patients do I see every day? What are some of the most common conditions prevalent among my patients? What are the causes of these conditions? Why do some people have a particular condition whereas others do not? What are the health needs of the community? What are the benefits of this programme to the community? How do I demonstrate the effectiveness of my service? Why do some people use the service while others do not? What do people think about the service? How satisfied are patients with the service? How effective is the service? How can the service be improved? You can add many other questions to this list. At times it may be possible to ignore these questions because of the level at which you work, at other times you may make an effort to find answers on your own initiative, or, sometimes, you may be required to obtain answers for effective administration and planning. Let us take another discipline: business studies. Assume you work in the area of marketing. Again, you can work at different levels: as a salesperson, sales manager or sales promotion executive. The list of questions that may come to your mind can be endless. The types of questions and the need to find answers to them will vary with the level at which you work in the organisation. You may just want to find out the monthly fluctuation in the sales of a particular product, or you may be asked to develop an R&D strategic plan to compete for a greater share of the market for the products produced by your company. The list of questions that may come to mind could be endless. For example: What is the best strategy to promote the sale of a particular product? How many salespersons do I need? What is the effect of a particular advertising campaign on the sale of this product? How satisfied are the consumers with this product? How much are consumers prepared to spend on this product? What do consumers like or dislike about this product? What type of packaging do consumers prefer for this product? 01-Kumar-4061-CH-01.indd 2 19/10/2010 11:44:29 AM  Ch a p t er 1 : R e s e arc h : A Way o f Th i n k in g 3 What training do the salespersons need to promote the sale of this product? What are the attributes of a good salesperson? To take a different example, let us assume that you work as a psychologist, counsellor or social worker. While engaging in the helping process you may ask yourself (or someone else may ask you) the following questions: What are my clients’ most common presenting problems? What are their most common underlying problems? What is the socioeconomic background of my clients? Why am I successful in certain cases and not in others? What resources are available in the community to help a client with a particular need? What intervention strategies are appropriate for this problem? How satisfied are my clients with my services? As a supervisor, administrator or manager of an agency, again different questions relating to effectiveness and efficiency of a service may come to your mind. For example: How many people are coming to my agency? What are the socioeconomic–demographic characteristics of my clients? How many cases in a day can a worker effectively handle? Why do some people use the service while others do not? How effective is the service? What are the most common needs of clients who come to this agency? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the service? How satisfied are the clients with the service? How can I improve this service for my clients? As a professional you might be interested in finding answers to theoretical questions, such as: Which is the most effective intervention for a particular problem? What causes X or what are the effects of Y? What is the relationship between two phenomena? How do I measure the self-esteem of my clients? How do I ascertain the validity of my questionnaire? What is the pattern of programme adoption in the community? Which is the best way of finding out community attitudes towards an issue? Which is the best way to find out the effectiveness of a particular treatment? How can I select an unbiased sample? What is the best way to find out about the level of marriage satisfaction among my clients? In this age of consumerism you cannot afford to ignore the consumers of a service. Consumers have the right to ask questions about the quality and effectiveness of the service they are receiving and you, as the service provider, have an obligation to answer their questions. Some of the questions that a consumer may ask are: 01-Kumar-4061-CH-01.indd 3 19/10/2010 11:44:29 AM  4 R e s e arc h M e t h o d o lo gy How effective is the service that I am receiving? Am I getting value for money? How well trained are the service providers? Most professions that are in the human service industry would lend themselves to the questions raised above and you as a service provider should be well prepared to answer them. Research is one of the ways to help you answer such questions objectively. Research: a way to gather evidence for your practice Evidence-based practice (EBP) is the delivery of services based upon research evidence about their effectiveness; the service provider’s clinical judgement as to the suitability and appropriateness of the service for a client; and the client’s own preference as to the acceptance of the service. EBP is fast becoming a service delivery norm among many professions.Though its origin is credited to medical practice, EBP has become an important part of many other professions such as nursing, allied health services, mental health, community health, social work, psychology and teaching. It is now being promoted as an acceptable and scientific method for policy formulation and practice assessment. The concept of EBP encourages professionals and other decision-makers to use evidence regarding the effectiveness of an intervention in conjunction with the characteristics and circumstance of a client and their own professional judgement to determine the appropri- ateness of an intervention when providing a service to a client. In this age of accountability, you as a professional must be accountable to your clients as well as your profession. It is as a part of this accountability that you need to demonstrate the effectiveness of the service(s) you provide. Research is one of the ways of collecting accurate, sound and reliable information about the effectiveness of your interventions, thereby providing you with evidence of its effective- ness. As service providers and professionals, we use techniques and procedures developed by research methodologists to consolidate, improve, develop, refine and advance clinical aspects of our practice to serve our clients better. Applications of research Very little research in the field is pure in nature. That is, very few people do research in research methodology per se. Most research is applied research, which has wide application in many disciplines. Every profession uses research methods in varying amounts in many areas. They use the methods and procedures developed by research methodologists in order to increase understanding in their own profession and to advance the professional knowledge base. It is through the application of research methodology that they strengthen and advance their own profession. Examine your own field.You will find that its professional practice follows 01-Kumar-4061-CH-01.indd 4 19/10/2010 11:44:29 AM  Ch a p t er 1 : R e s e arc h : A Way o f Th i n k in g 5 procedures and practices tested and developed by others over a long period of time. It is in this testing process that you need research skills, the developments of which fall in the category of pure research. As a matter of fact, the validity of your findings entirely depends upon the soundness of the research methods and procedures adopted by you. Within any profession, where you directly or indirectly provide a service, such as health (nursing, occupational therapy, physiotherapy, community health, health promotion and pub- lic health), education, psychology or social work, the application of research can be viewed from four different perspectives: 1 the service provider; 2 the service administrator, manager and/or planner; 3 the service consumer; and 4 the professional. These perspectives are summarised in Figure 1.1.Though it is impossible to list all the issues in every discipline, this framework can be applied to most disciplines and situations in the humanities and the social sciences.You should be able to use this to identify, from the view- point of the above perspectives, the possible issues in your own academic field where research techniques can be used to find answers. Research: what does it mean? There are several ways of obtaining answers to your professional questions.These methods range from the fairly informal, based upon clinical impressions, to the strictly scientific, adhering to the conventional expectations of scientific procedures. Research is one of the ways to find answers to your questions.When you say that you are undertaking a research study to find out answers to a question, you are implying that the process being applied: 1 is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies; 2 uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity and reliability; 3 is designed to be unbiased and objective. Your philosophical orientation may stem from one of the several para­digms and approaches in research – positivist, interpretive, phenomeno­logy, action or participatory, feminist, quali- tative, quantitative – and the academic discipline in which you have been trained. The concept of ‘validity’ can be applied to any aspect of the research process. It ensures that in a research study correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question. ‘Reliability’ refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy. ‘Unbiased and objective’ means that you have taken each step in an unbiased manner and drawn each conclusion to the best of your ability and without introducing your own vested interest. The author makes a distinction between bias and subjectivity. Subjectivity is an integral part of your way of thinking that is ‘conditioned’ by your 01-Kumar-4061-CH-01.indd 5 19/10/2010 11:44:29 AM 01-Kumar-4061-CH-01.indd 6 The applications of research From the viewpoint of The administrator, The service provider The consumer The professional manager and/or planner To answer questions such as: To answer questions such as: To answer questions such as: To answer questions such as: How many people are using What are the needs of the Am I, as a consumer, getting Which is the most effective the service or the product? community? value for money? intervention for a particular Why do some people use the What types of service/product How good are the service problem? service/product while others are needed by the providers? What is the relationship do not? community? What are the long-term between X and Y? How effective is the How many service providers effects of the product I am How valid is a particular service/product? are needed? using? Where is the theory in the present How can the service/product What are the training needs evidence? conditions? be improved? of the staff? What is the best way of Which type of people use or How many cases can a measuring attitudes? do not use the worker handle in a day? What is the process through service/product? How can the effectiveness of which people decide to How satisfied or dissatisfied each worker be evaluated? adopt a programme? are the consumers of the How can the service/product service/product? be made more popular? What are the problems with the service/product? Figure 1.1   The applications of research 19/10/2010 11:44:29 AM  Ch a p t er 1 : R e s e arc h : A Way o f Th i n k in g 7 educational background, discipline, philosophy, experience and skills. For example, a psy- chologist may look at a piece of information differently from the way in which an anthro- pologist or a historian looks at it. Bias, on the other hand, is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something. Adherence to the three criteria mentioned above enables the process to be called ‘research’. Therefore, when you say you are undertaking a research study to find the answer to a question, this implies that the method(s) you are adopting fulfils these expectations (discussed later in the chapter). However, the degree to which these criteria are expected to be fulfilled varies from dis- cipline to discipline and so the meaning of ‘research’ differs from one academic discipline to another. For example, the expectations of the research process are markedly different between the physical and the social sciences. In the physical sciences a research endeavour is expected to be strictly controlled at each step, whereas in the social sciences rigid control cannot be enforced and sometimes is not even demanded. Within the social sciences the level of control required also varies markedly from one discipline to another, as social scientists differ over the need for the research process to meet the above expectations. Despite these differences among disciplines, their broad approach to enquiry is similar. The research model, the basis of this book, is based upon this broad approach. As beginners in research you should understand that research is not all technical, complex, statistics and computers. It can be a very simple activity designed to provide answers to very simple questions relating to day-to-day activities. On the other hand, research procedures can also be employed to formulate intricate theories or laws that govern our lives. The difference between research and non-research activity is, as mentioned, in the way we find answers to our research questions. For a process to be called research, it is important that it meets certain requirements and possesses certain characteristics.To identify these requirements and charac- teristics let us examine some definitions of research: The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary defines the former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowl- edge, undertaken to establish facts or principles. (Grinnell 1993: 4) Grinnell further adds: ‘research is a structured inquiry that utilises acceptable scientific meth- odology to solve problems and creates new knowledge that is generally applicable.’ (1993: 4) Lundberg (1942) draws a parallel between the social research process, which is considered scientific, and the process that we use in our daily lives. According to him: Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and inter­pretation of data. Now, obviously, this process is one in which nearly all people engage in the course of their daily lives. The main difference between our day-to-day generalisations and the conclusions usually recognised as scientific method lies in the degree of formality, rigor- ousness, verifiability and general validity of the latter. (Lundberg 1942: 5) 01-Kumar-4061-CH-01.indd 7 19/10/2010 11:44:29 AM  8 R e s e arc h M e t h o d o lo gy Burns (1997: 2) defines research as ‘a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem’. According to Kerlinger (1986: 10), ‘scientific research is a systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of propositions about the presumed relationships about various phenomena’. Bulmer (1977: 5) states: ‘Nevertheless sociological research, as research, is primarily committed to establishing systematic, reliable and valid knowledge about the social world.’ The research process: characteristics and requirements From these definitions it is clear that research is a process for collecting, analysing and inter- preting information to answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical. Let us briefly examine these characteristics to understand what they mean: Controlled – In real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. A particular event is seldom the result of a one-to-one relationship. Some relationships are more complex than others. Most outcomes are a sequel to the interplay of a multiplicity of relationships and inter- acting factors. In a study of cause-and-effect relationships it is important to be able to link the effect(s) with the cause(s) and vice versa. In the study of causation, the establishment of this linkage is essential; however, in practice, particularly in the social sciences, it is extremely difficult – and often impossible – to make the link. The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables, you set up your study in a way that minimises the effects of other factors affecting the relation- ship. This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences, as most of the research is done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences it is extremely difficult as research is car- ried out on issues relating to human beings living in society, where such controls are impos- sible. Therefore, in the social sciences, as you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact. Rigorous – You must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigour varies markedly between the physical and the social sciences and within the social sciences. Systematic – This implies that the procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others. Valid and verifiable – This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others. Empirical – This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from real-life experiences or observations. 01-Kumar-4061-CH-01.indd 8 19/10/2010 11:44:29 AM  Ch a p t er 1 : R e s e arc h : A Way o f Th i n k in g 9 Critical – Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from any drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny. For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics. Types of research From the viewpoint of Application Objectives Enquiry mode Pure Descriptive Exploratory Quantitative research research research research Applied Correlational Explanatory Qualitative research research research research Figure 1.2   Types of research Types of research Types of research can be looked at from three different perspectives (Figure 1.2): 1 applications of the findings of the research study; 2 objectives of the study; 3 mode of enquiry used in conducting the study. The classification of the types of a study on the basis of these perspectives is not mutually exclusive: that is, a research study classified from the viewpoint of ‘application’ can also be classified from the perspectives of ‘objectives’ and ‘enquiry mode’ employed. For example, a research project may be classified as pure or applied research (from the perspective of application), as descriptive, correlational, explanatory or exploratory (from the perspective of objectives) and as qualitative or quantitative (from the perspective of the enquiry mode employed). 01-Kumar-4061-CH-01.indd 9 19/10/2010 11:44:29 AM  10 R e s e arc h M e t h o d o lo gy Types of research: application perspective If you examine a research endeavour from the perspective of its application, there are two broad categories: pure research and applied research. In the social sciences, according to Bailey (1978: 17): Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. Thus such work often involves the testing of hypotheses containing very abstract and specialised concepts. Pure research is also concerned with the development, examination, verification and refinement of research methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form the body of research methodology. Examples of pure research include developing a sampling tech- nique that can be applied to a particular situation; developing a methodology to assess the validity of a procedure; developing an instrument, say, to measure the stress level in people; and finding the best way of measuring people’s attitudes. The knowledge pro- duced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of knowledge of research methods. Most of the research in the social sciences is applied. In other words, the research tech- niques, procedures and methods that form the body of research methodology are applied to the collection of information about various aspects of a situation, issue, problem or phe- nomenon so that the information gathered can be used in other ways – such as for policy formulation, administration and the enhancement of understanding of a phenomenon. Types of research: objectives perspective If you examine a research study from the perspective of its objectives, broadly a research endeavour can be classified as descriptive, correlational, explanatory or exploratory. A research study classified as a descriptive study attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information about, say, the living conditions of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue. For example, it may attempt to describe the types of service provided by an organisation, the administra- tive structure of an organisation, the living conditions of Aboriginal people in the outback, the needs of a community, what it means to go through a divorce, how a child feels living in a house with domestic violence, or the attitudes of employees towards management. The main purpose of such studies is to describe what is prevalent with respect to the issue/ problem under study. The main emphasis in a correlational study is to discover or establish the existence of a relationship/association/interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation. What 01-Kumar-4061-CH-01.indd 10 19/10/2010 11:44:29 AM  Ch a p t er 1 : R e s e arc h : A Way o f Th i n k in g 11 is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of a product? What is the relationship between stressful living and the incidence of heart attack? What is the relationship between fertility and mortality? What is the relationship between technology and unemployment? What is the effect of a health service on the control of a disease, or the home environ- ment on educational achieve­ment? These studies examine whether there is a relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon and, therefore, are called cor- relational studies. Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon. This type of research attempts to explain, for example, why stressful living results in heart attacks; why a decline in mortality is followed by a fertility decline; or how the home environment affects children’s level of academic achievement. The fourth type of research, from the viewpoint of the objectives of a study, is called exploratory research. This is when a study is undertaken with the objective either to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study. When a study is carried out to determine its feasibility it is also called a feasibility study or a pilot study. It is usually carried out when a researcher wants to explore areas about which s/he has little or no knowl