Research Notes 2nd Term PDF

PARTS OF THE RESEARCH CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION PARTS OF THE INTRODUCTION: 1. Background of the study Include the purpose and reason behind why you conducted the study or research What made you conduct the study? Overview what would be the study all about Introduc...

PARTS OF THE RESEARCH CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION PARTS OF THE INTRODUCTION: 1. Background of the study Include the purpose and reason behind why you conducted the study or research What made you conduct the study? Overview what would be the study all about Introduce your research study The rationale of your study Follows a deductive approach (general knowledge to specific idea) Inverted pyramid structure: a deductive writing method that puts the essential information first, which it follows with further data Contextualize ○ Also applicable to your RRL ○ Looking into diff perspectives, compare and contrast the study to the previously published papers ○ Give important perspective by citing similar examples or relevant background or information from previous studies ○ Some techniques: Compare your primary topic of analysis to others like/unlike Expose Wwoejiskpaok di nakopya Explain briefly what historical circumstances led up to the topic you’re discussing Based on the journal references Explore how your analysis fits into a larger discussion about a field Cite other scholars who have recently contributed to the field you’re working on 2. Statement of the problem Statement or sentence form The problem you have found or the issue you want to tackle in the research The main research problem or question is the axis around which the whole research effort evolves It clarifies the goals of the research paper and keep the research paper on track and keeps them from wandering in unproductive directions The research problem is the heart of the research process Indicate your research question ○ The research problem should be clear ○ It should include all the variables, population (participants), and research setting (where is the research is conducted or held) ○ Variables are measurable Choosing an appropriate research problem ○ Look around you 1 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  ○ Read the existing research literature about a topic (mga journals, articles) ○ Seek the advice of an expert ○ Attend professional conferences ○ Choose a topic that intrigues and motivates you ○ Choose a topic that others will find interesting and worthy of attention ○ Be realistic about what you can accomplish 3. Research questions Question form Types of research questions ○ Factor-isolating Categorize or name factors and situation Ex. What are the possible reasons for the low grades in mathematics? (name the reasons) Their goal is to name, define, and categorize the different factors and situations in the research The variables, concepts ○ Factor-relating We have already identified the factors here Establish relationships between factors that have been identified Ex. What relationship exists between gender and anxiety level? ○ Situation-relating Aims to see changes that might happen to one variable when the other variables changes Ex. what is the effect of the changes in climate to the behavior of animals living in the grass field Cause is the changes in climate Effect on the behavior of animals It is like cause and effect. Finding out what is the cause and effect Like experimental because there is an independent and dependent variable ○ Situation-producing Led to promote explicit course of action or conditions under which a goal could be accomplished You already have the effect You ask what could cause this effect? Or what could you do to get that effect or goal? Ex. What appropriate classroom management technique could be devised to maintain classroom cleanliness? How can we maintain classroom cleanliness? 4. Research hypothesis It is only appropriate for quantitative study because we test the hypothesis after having a hypothesis Essentially, it is a declarative statement of how you expect the research to turn out 2 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  Possible answer to your research question The basis of the investigation NOTE: it is good practice to ensure that your research topic, research problem, research question, and hypothesis use consistent language (it means that using the same words that means the same thing) regarding variables and any anticipated outcomes ○ Example: Research question Do general educated teachers evaluate student homework differently than special education teachers, based on five criteria? Possible hypothesis General education and special education teachers evaluate students homework significantly different on each of five given criteria All the words from research question and possible hypothesis is the same ○ Example: A study on the smoking pattern in a community in relation to gender differentials (it is looking for the smoking pattern of different genders) The following hypothesis could be constructed: ○ There is no significant difference in the proportion of male and female smokers in the study population ○ A greater proportion of females than males are smokers in the study population ○ A total of 60% of females and 30% of males in the study population are smokers ○ There are twice as many female smokers as male smokers in the study population Even if the wordings are different, the meaning should be the same Null Hypothesis ○ It means 0 ○ Hypothesis of no difference, hypothesis of no significant relationship Alternative Hypothesis ○ Hypothesis of difference, hypothesis of significant relationship As qualitative studies are characterized by an emphasis on describing, understanding, and exploring phenomena using categorical and subjective measures, therefore construction of hypothesis is not made in a qualitative study ○ We don’t test the theory, we create it 5. Objectives of the study (goal) Outline of the overall purpose of the study Should be closely related to the research problem 3 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  Specific Measurable Attainable Realistic Time-bound Two types General objective (main objective) ○ Overall statement of the goal of the study Specific objective (sub-objectives) ○ Specific aspects of the topic that the researcher wants to investigate within the main framework of their study ○ It helps you answer the overall objective Example An assessment of the effect of internet usage on the behavior pattern among SHS students from Manila ○ General objective To assess the effect of internet usage on the behavior patterns among SHS students ○ Specific objectives To determine the level of internet usage among SHS students To assess the effect of internet usage on the behavior pattern of SHS students To determine the extent of relationship between internet usage and behavior pattern of SHS students To associate the findings with selected socio-demographic variable ○ Kaya ganyan ung specific objectives, and hindi lang effects or making a solution, kasi may nakalagay na assessment or in-aassess mo Operational definitions Are the working definition How you would define a certain word based on your study Example objectives from studies that require operational definitions: ○ To find out the number of children living below poverty line in the Philippines Yung children ay pwede iba’t ibang perspective depende sa research or sa tao (anong age ba? Yun yung ilalagay mo sa operational definition) You have to define this sa definition of terms Pati rin yung poverty line, kung ano ang tingin mo na kita na pasok sa poverty line 4 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  ○ To measure the effectiveness of a retraining program designed to help young people You gave to define the effectiveness, if ano ba yung effective for you Pati yung young people, dapat ilagay mo yung age na tingin mo na young 6. Significance of the study (importance) Why conduct the study? Of what use is it? What practical value does the study have? Identifies who will benefit from the research and how they will benefit Who are the benefactors ○ Ex. Your research is about the Academic Performance of students. Who will benefit? Students, teachers, and academic relations. And explain how they will benefit This will state the contribution of your study and the usefulness of your study in the society Kayo lang ba makikinabang, or buong society ba, or few people lang ang makikinabang? Dapat lahat ang makikinabang You have to prove that your study is significant Based on your statement of the problem you will see the potential benefits of your study. Just answer this question, “What are the benefits or advantages of the study based on the statement of the problem?” Determine the specific contribution of your thesis study to the society as well as to an individual 7. Scope and delimitations Determines the coverage of the study Identifies ALL the things (variables, subjects, other factors/nuances) that will NOT be covered to be clear and specific Examples: Will our sample consist only of people of a certain age range, geographic location, or cultural background How will we be measuring the variables in our study Scope Contains the explanation of what info or subject is being analyzed Followed by the limitation of the research Mga kasama sa study Eg. Research usually limited in scope by sample size, time, and geographic area The delimitation of the study is the description of the scope of study. It will explain why definite aspects of a subject were chosen and why others were excluded It also mentions the research method used as well as the certain theories that applied to the data 5 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  Limitation and delimitation Mga hindi kasama sa study Limitations Are beyond our control Sample size, time, geographical location/area Ex. senior high school community (wala kang control kung ilan yung students) Ex. time of research (limited lang yung research until grade 12) Ex. sa geographic area baka walang time to travel Delimitations Are conditions that the researcher purposely controlled Ex. pumili ka ng 5 participants na interview independent variables 8. Definition of terms Referred as working definitions or operational definition It should be based on you study Should not only be found on the dictionary Definition of concepts that are used in the study either in the research problem and/or identifying the study population in a measurable form For qualitative studies define lexically/scientific (definition from literature with citation and operationally. Hindi na depende sa perspective natin yung definition nung term) CREATING A STUDY 1. Identify the topic a. Example: fertility and mortality 2. Dissect the topic (specific topics) a. Example: i. Trends in fertility and mortality ii. Determinants of fertility behavior iii. Relationship between fertility and mortality iv. Impact health services on mortality 3. Select a specific topic (most preferred topic) a. Example: Relationship between fertility and mortality 4. Raise questions a. Examples: i. What happens to fertility when mortality declines ii. What is the time lag between the start of decline in mortality and start of decline in fertility iii. What are the factors that contribute to the decline in fertility 5. Formulate objectives a. Example: i. Main objective: 1. To explore the relationship between fertility and mortality 6 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  ii. Specific objectives: 1. To find out the extent of decline in fertility in relation to the decline in mortality 2. To ascertain the time lag between the decline in mortality and the decline in fertility 3. To identify (name or know) the factors that affect the changes in fertility 4. To explore the relationship between socioeconomic-demographic characteristics of the population and the extent of changes in fertility and mortality 6. Make sure a. Assess the objectives in the light of i. Work involved ii. Timeframe of study financial iii. Resources iv. Technical expertise b. Are you sure you can do the objectives in your research 7. Double-check a. Interest in the study (are you really interested in doing the study) b. Agree with the objectives c. Adequacy of resources d. Availability of technical expertise (do you have someone to consult with the study) 7 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11 CREATING A TOPIC 6 REASONS WHY RESEARCH IS IMPORTANT 1. Encourages a love of learning that extends beyond classrooms 2. Use to propose and prove theories 3. Provides updated information and to-the-point data 4. Creates and build credibility 5. Helps succeed in business 6. Facilitates learning process YOUR MINDSET Prepare yourself for identifying a research topic by: 1. Brainstorming 2. Outside the discipline a. Ex. we try to think that we are not HA students/researchers to know if how non-HA students would understand the research 3. Partner a. Choose a partner that is not from your group, since there are times that they will see things that is not included in your topic b. You could also explain your research to them, especially when they have questions regarding it. In this way, we can see if you really understand the research you are conducting and if you’re ready to defend your research 4. Ask “why” a. Ask it to yourself 5. Talk about it GUIDELINES IN CHOOSING A RESEARCH TOPIC 1. Interest in the subject matter a. Which is why you should explore the topics to know which topic are you interested in 2. Availability of information a. Do you have articles about it? b. To know if you have enough information about the topic 3. Timeliness and relevance of the topic 4. Limitations on the subject a. Time, budget, experts availability, etc. 5. Personal resources SUBJECT MATTER OF THE RESEARCH Begin your research work with a problem Should be inferential, critical, integrative, and creative A topic is researchable if the knowledge and information about it are supported by evidence that is observable, factual, and logical 8 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11 RESEARCH TOPICS TO BE AVOIDED 1. Controversial topics 2. High technical subjects 3. Hard-to-investigate subjects 4. Too broad subjects 5. Too narrow subjects 6. Vague subjects (not clear) SOURCES OF RESEARCH TOPICS 1. Peer-reviewed journals, books, government publications 2. Mass media communication a. Ex. from the news 3. Professional periodicals 4. General periodicals 5. Previous reading assignments 6. Work experience a. Or our experiences as students APPROACHING THE PROBLEM (especially kapag complicated or complex yung problem) Three methods for approaching a problem that allows the researcher to fully understand the problem before attempting a solution: ○ Isolate and give structure Isolate the problem from external factors Specify and define concepts within the problem Clarify levels of reference (part or whole; micro or macro) Ex. Are you studying Alzheimer's as a whole? Specify relationships between key concepts ○ Magnify the problem Amplify every portion of a particular isolated section ○ Search for theory Apply one or more relevant theories by conducting a complete review of the literature THE REFRAMING LOOP look at the research from different perspectives 9 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11 THE CONCEPTS OF MAKING A CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE Contribution to knowledge implies an increase in our understanding of a phenomenon; to contribute to the overall body of knowledge in the area ○ Establishing casual relationships ○ Evaluating the efficacy of a particular approach to a problem ○ Looking at the problem longitudinally ○ Exploring an approach to address a problem through a descriptive study ○ Establishing a method to create a solution to a problem ○ Developing constructs regarding the causes of a problem ○ Developing a predictive model FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DOING RESEARCH Timeframe Facility Expertise Resources Safety and health Ethics Data sources Social and scientific value 10 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11 RESEARCH PROCESS Conceptualization Phase 1. Topic/Problem Identification 2. Literature Review 3. Hypothesis/Proposition Development 4. Framework Development 5. Objective Formulation Design Phase 6. Research Plan Formulation Empirical Phase 7. Data Gathering/Collection Analytical Phase 8. Data Analysis and Interpretation 9. Conclusion CONCEPTUALIZATION PHASE STEP 1: Topic/Problem Magnification ○ Key Considerations: The SEMP Approach Substantive Dimension Is the research topic/question of theoretical/disciplinal significant Functionality Ethical Dimension Can this topic/question be studied in a manner consistent with guidelines for the protection of the subjects Legality Methodological Dimension How can this topic/question be studied Specificity Practical Dimension Are resources adequate to conduct the study Feasibility If your answer to all these questions is yes, then the standards are all met 11 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  ○ Action Priority Matrix Quick Wins Max impact Minimal time Minimal effort Big Hits Max impact Max time Max effort Fill Ins/ Nice to Have Maganda kasi madali, pero… Minimal impact Minimal time Minimal effort Hard Slogs/Leave for Now Rejected na topic (?) Minimal impact Max time Max effort After, it is now time to intellectualized the topic Intellectualize the topic - create a research title that would make sense ○ Ontology and Metaphysics of Research Topics Identified versus intellectualized topics Building block of an intellectualized topics Approach#1: TVPLAD Approach ○ Topic ○ Variable (independent variable/s) ○ Participants (if there are no participants/human subject, then there must be a TS or Test Subject) ○ Locale 12 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  ○ Argument (What are you testing?) ○ Design ○ Example #1 Regression Analysis of Factors Affecting the Academic Performance of Grade 10 Students at MCU - Basic Education Department Topic: academic performance of gr10 Variables: factors Participants: gr10 students Locale: mcu - basic education department Argument: affects Design: regression analysis ○ Example #2 Feasible emergency water supply: A containerized solution for meeting the water needs in protracted displacement using AC blocker and UV ○ Example #3 Evaluation of blended virgin coconut oil and fish oil on growth performance and resistance to Streptococcus iniae challenge of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Topic: growth performance and resistance Variable: virgin coconut oil and fish oil Participants: none, Test Subject: Nile Tilapia Locale: none Argument: Design: Evaluation Approach #2 Approach #3 Approach #4: Subject-Focused ○ Old style: The Relationship of Social Media Involvement and Academic Dishonesty among Senior High School Students: A Correlational Study ○ Better: Senior High School Students’ Social Media Involvement and Prevalence to Academic Dishonesty ○ Highlights the participants of the study ○ Highlights the aim or target of the study (di ko alam where ito) Approach #5 Approach #6: Test-Focused 13 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  ○ Old style: Senior High School Students’ Social Media Use and Tendencies toward Academic Dishonesty ○ Better: Approach #7: Findings-Focused ○ Old Style: Senior High School Students’ Social Media Use and Tendencies toward Academic Dishonesty ○ Better: Social Media Participation affects Undergraduate Students’ Self Esteem ○ Highlights the idea/outcome of the study WHAT FORMS THE BACKBONE OF A GOOD RESEARCH? CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH QUESTION: FINERMAPS Feasible ○ Within the ability of the investigator to carry out Interesting ○ The researcher should have a real grounded interest in the research question Novel ○ The question should not copy questions investigated by other workers Ethical ○ Get clearance from appropriate authorities before stating research on the question Relevant ○ Should be academic and intellectual interest to people in the field chosen Manageable ○ Accomplishment of the researcher should be in the target schedule and budget ○ Can you do it? 14 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  Appropriate ○ Logically and scientifically for the community and institution Potential value and publishability ○ Can make significant health impact in clinical and community practices Systematic ○ Structures with specified steps and sequence with a well-defined set of rules 15 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Exhaustive analysis of materials related to your study Published journal articles you would use Serves as a foundation of your research Writing skills: ○ Summarizing ○ Paraphrasing Changing or collating information from different articles Paraphrasing an idea and not just a sentence ○ Writing indirect speeches To see the gaps and issues that are not yet studied Tips on how to write your RRL: ○ Prepare for the search ○ Categorize the sources ○ Screening irrelevance and relevance Screening irrelevant and relevant journal articles, to see if it can help your study ○ Evaluate literary sources ○ Look for gaps Things they haven’t done yet LITERATURE REVIEW An account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers Why is it essential? ○ It helps avoid problems that other researchers have encountered, done or did ○ Prevents duplication of studies A literature review must: ○ Be organized (themes) and related directly to the research question ○ Synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known (gaps) ○ Identify areas of controversy (gaps) ○ Formulate questions that need further research 4 STAGES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERATURE REVIEW Problem Formulation ↓ Literature Search ↓ Data Evaluation ↓ Analysis and Interpretation 16 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11 FORMULATING THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Chapter 1 - Conceptual Framework ○ Contained in the research statement of question Chapter 2 - Theoretical Framework ○ Contained in the literature review Chapter 3 - Methodological Framework ○ Contained in the methodology review Chapter 4 - Analytical Framework ○ Contained in the data analysis chapter presented in the thesis or report of the research LITERARY REVIEW IS DIVIDED INTO 3 PARTS Introduction ○ What is inside the chapter 2 ○ Introduction to the chapter, nothing else, nothing more ○ It should thoroughly and succinctly introduce the content of the chapter and to the main argument to be developed in the literature review Body ○ Contains subthemes, subheadings, subsections ○ Each subheading is carefully conceptualized and developed to reflect the content of that sub-section. It should contain a carefully developed, cogently expressed, and well-laid-out argument. Each section contains 2-5 paragraphs per theme. Synthesis ○ It is the summary of the chapter, nothing else, nothing more ○ It should thoroughly and succinctly summarize the chapter and the main argument of the chapter for the reader IN WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW Connect and group relevant research based on common themes or trends Each paragraph should discuss one specific trend, not one specific author Literature reviews are not annotated bibliographies: they should not have one paragraph per source THE TOPIC SENTENCES IN A LITERATURE REVIEW SHOULD ILLUSTRATE THE CONNECTION ACROSS MULTIPLE STUDIES Common phrases to use when connecting studies (phrases to highlight agreement): ○ ”One trend in the research is…” ○ ”Research seems to agree that…” ○ ”Numerous authors support the claim that…” ○ ”There is strong convergent evidence for…” Common phrases to use when connecting studies (phrases to highlight disagreement): ○ “The evidence on X is mixed for…” ○ “There is overall debate regarding…” ○ “A lack of consensus exists on the point of…” 17 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  ○ “There are two conflicting camps on the issue of…” WHEN LOOKING FOR LITERATURE, WE SHOULD ASK OURSELVES: Is it comprehensive? Does it include authors? Is it up-to-date? Does it adequately support the research project? TYPES OF SOURCES OF DATA Primary sources ○ An original document containing firsthand information about a topic ○ Examples: Diaries Interviews Letters Original works of art (sculpture, paintings) Photographs Speeches Works of literature (novels, poems) Original journal research articles ○ Not all primary sources are factual or can be used Secondary source ○ Contains commentary on or discussion about a primary source, summaries or interpretations of the research reports rather than a complete description of them ○ Good secondary sources are articles on meta-analysis of studies conducted in a period of time because they can provide research gaps and over studied areas of a research field ○ Most important feature: offers interpretations of information from primary sources ○ The experience is subjected to another interpretation ○ Example Biographies Dissertation Journal reviews Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies (used to locate a secondary source) Monographs Tertiary sources ○ Interpretation of either or both primary and secondary sources from multiple references ○ Presents summaries or condensed versions of materials, usually with references back to the primary and/or secondary sources ○ Note: good place to look up facts or get a general overview of a subject ○ Example Dictionary Handbooks or Encyclopedias textbook 18 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11 WHERE TO LOOK FOR LITERARY MATERIALS Google scholar ○ Puro published articles ang nandito UST Library EVALUATING THE RELEVANCE AND CREDIBILITY OF A LITERARY MATERIAL Validity/Accuracy ○ Is the source valid? Based on the journal name ○ Is it peer reviewed? Validity ○ Does it contain the author's details? Accuracy ○ Is the same research cited in other sources? Coverage ○ Does this cover the area being studied? ○ Is the sample size adequate? Location ○ Is the location relevant to you? Currency ○ Check publication date Objectivity ○ Are there proofs to support the data? ○ Were the methods used appropriate? PREDATORY JOURNALS Websites of journals na sarili nila or their own brand They advertise that they publish journals An exploitative publishing business model that involves charging publication fees to authors without providing the editorial and publishing services associated with legitimate journals (open access or not) They are presenting themselves as journal or journal companies, but they do not provide you with the credibility of your paper. They did not check or edit your paper and just published it 19 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11 HIJACKED JOURNAL Like a fishing scam Journals for which someone has created a counterfeit website, stealing the journal’s identity and soliciting article submissions using the author-pays model (gold open-access) They copy the original website and pagbabayarin kayo APA CITATION GUIDE We follow the American Psychological Association style of writing This is an overview of the American Psychological Association’s style of citation and writing It is based on the seventh edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA Publication Manual). We use the APA 7th Edition ○ Surname, A., & Surname, B. (Year). Title. Journal, Volume. URL ○ WHY CITE SOURCES? Gives proper credit to the sources used in writing the paper Enables the reader to find the information for themselves Adds credibility and provides strength for your arguments To prevent plagiarism WHEN TO CITE SOURCES Quoting from a source Summarizing or rephrasing/paraphrasing information from a source into one’s own words HOW TO CITE SOURCES? 1. In-text citation Located within the text Used when you refer to, summarize, paraphrase, or quote from another source; gives readers the information necessary to find that source again 20 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  For every in-text citation in your paper, there must be a corresponding entry in your reference list 2. List of References Located at the end of the paper It tells the readers what sources were used to write the paper and provides complete information about the source Must be arranged in alphabetical order EXAMPLES: Books ○ One author Citation: Aronsson (2000) / (Aronsson, 2000) Reference: Aronsson, L. (2000). The development of sustainable tourism. Continuum ○ Two authors Citation: Cushing and Allan (2001) / (Cushing & Alan, 2001) Reference: Cushing, C. E., & Allan, J.D. (2001). Streams: Their ecology and life. Academic Press. ○ Three or more authors Citation: (Hayes et al. 1999) Et al. kapag maraming authors (3 or more) Reference: Hayes, S. c., Stosahi, K. D., & Wison, K. G. (1999). Acceptance and commitment therapy. Guilford Press. Journals ○ One author ○ Two authors Citation: (Koopman and Benas, 2001) Reference: Koopman, W. J., Benas, K. (2001). Prospects for autoimmune disease: Research advances in rheumatoid arthritis. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 185. 648-650 21 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  ○ Three authors Citation: (Koopman et al., 2001) Reference: Koopman, W. J., Jordan, P., & Benas, K. (2001). Prospects for autoimmune disease: Research advances in rheumatoid arthritis. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 185. 648-650 ORIGINAL RESEARCH The most common type of journal manuscript used to publish full reports of data from research It may be called an “original article”, “research article”, “research”, or just an “article”, depending on the journal The original research format is suitable for many different fields and different types of studies It includes full Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion sections Example: ○ SHORT REPORTS OR LETTERS Similar sa original research pero mas short lang These papers communicate brief reports of data from original research that editors believe will be interesting to many researchers, and that will likely stimulate further research in the field As they are relatively short, the format is useful for scientists with results that are time-sensitive (for example, those in highly competitive or quickly-changing disciplines) These papers are also sometimes called Brief communications Kapag masyadong complicated or maraming parts, after matapos ung part 1, isusubmit nila i-publish yun pero continuous pa rin sila sa research nila. Kahit short lang, at east na-publish na and di ka mauunahan 22 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11 REVIEW ARTICLES Compilation of many articles Summary of research Provide a comprehensive summary of research on a certain topic, and a perspective on the state of the field and where it is heading They are often written by leaders in a particular discipline after an invitation from the editors of a journal Reviews are often widely read (for example, by researchers looking for a full introduction to a field) and highly cited Reviews commonly cite approximately 100 primary research articles CASE STUDIES These articles report specific instances of interesting phenomena A goal of case studies is to make other researchers aware of the possibility that a specific phenomenon might occur This type of study is often use in medicine to report the occurrence of previously unknown or emerging pathologies METHODOLOGIES OR METHODS These articles present a new experimental method, test, or procedure The method described may either be completely new, or may offer a better version of an existing method The article should describe a demonstrable advance on what is currently available 23 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Dito nakalagay ung methods, techniques, protocols, etc. Ways and means to conduct or how you do your research Research design is here Define the population (who are the participants), sample size (how many participants), and sampling technique (how are you going to find the participants) Data gathering procedure Data analysis procedure ○ Quantitative: statistical analysis/treatment Tips on how to write your methodology: ○ Look or bring back to the problem You have to adapt all of the methodologies of the articles you found. To find if their methodology can help you find answers ○ Reproducibility Meaning that it can be done by others as well Doing similar methodologies ○ Justify and cite Justify and know why you are using that methodology Cite those authors where you got the methodology ○ Mind the order Di pwede iba-iba yung order niya Start with the first step: define the population, how will you gather the population and data, how you’ll analyze the data COMMON METHODS USED IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Observations ○ Ethnography mostly Textual or visual analysis ○ Content analysis mostly Interview ○ DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUALITATIVE INTERVIEW Structured Structured questionnaires with fixed choices Verbally administered questionnaires Quick and easy to administer No chance to ask follow-up questions No need to elaborate Allows your participant with limited responses Ex. “Is your health: excellent, good, fair, or poor?” Semistructured Consisting of open-ended questions ○ The participants’ answer is more detailed A flexible approach You can ask for elaboration and clarification 24 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  Allows the interviewee to pursue other ideas or responses in more detail ○ Like structured because you have key questions or a set of questions to ask the participants, but you are allowed to do follow-up questions based on the answers of your participants Most frequently used in healthcare Ex. “What do you think good health is? How do you consider your own health?” Depth/Unstructured One or two issues covered in great detail Questions are based on what the interviewee says It is less structured and the most flexible one You have to make sure to cover a case, 1 or 2 issues that are in great detail Even if it is unstructured, you should still have guide questions to know how to start the interview, so the participants will also know the topic being discussed. But don’t tell them the questions so you can still get their actual answer without them researching about it and giving them clues about what answers you would like to hear Additional questions are based on what the interviewee would respond It also consists of open-ended questions Ex. “Can you tell me about your health experiences and what you think of your health” ○ IMPORTANT SKILLS OF RESEARCHERS FOR CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS Designing good, open-ended, neutral, not biased, sensitive, and understandable questions Ability to listen attentively to what is being said Probing on the last remarks by the informant Asking clarification and follow-up questions Reflecting on remarks made by the informant Adopting open and emotional neutral body language ○ TYPES OF QUESTIONS FOR QUALITATIVE INTERVIEW Behavior or experience Opinion or belief Feelings Background or demographic Knowledge Sensory experience on the topics ○ BEFORE THE INTERVIEW YOU SHOULD: Inform respondents about study details and assurance on ethical principles. If the interview is being tape-recorded, ask for consent Be prepared with the right questions to get the information needed 25 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  Conduct interviews in areas free from distractions and at times and locations most suitable for participants Establish rapport with participants Researchers need to consider how they are perceived by interviewees and the effects of characteristics such as class, race, sex, and social distance ○ DURING THE INTERVIEW Check that you have understood respondents’ meanings instead of relying on their own assumptions Make “field notes” The researcher needs to remain open to the possibility that the concepts and variables that emerge may be very different from those that might have been predicted at the outset Give appropriate verbal and non-verbal feedback If the interviewee would like to ask a question, inform them that questions can be answered at the end of the interview ○ AFTER THE INTERVIEW Thank participants for their time and ask them if there is anything they would like to add If the interview is tape-recorded, transcribe it verbatim (word per word) ○ COMMON PITFALLS IN INTERVIEWING Interruption from outside Competing distractions Stage fright for the interviewer or interviewee Asking interviewees embarrassing or awkward questions Jumping from one subject to another Teaching Counselling Presenting one’s own perspective Receiving secret information Translators Focus groups discussion ○ Group discussion on a particular topic organized for research purposes ○ Guided, monitored, and recorded by a researcher (moderator or facilitator) ○ Interaction is key to a successful group. Pre-existing group vc. Stranger Group ○ Group size: slightly over-recruit; optimum size: 6-8 participants; can work with as few as 3 participants and as many as 14 participants (limited) ○ Composed of multiple participants, unlike an interview that has a one-on-one interview between an interviewee and an interviewer ○ Questions should move from general to more specific questions and should be relative to the importance of issues in the research agenda (deductive flow of discussion) 26 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11  ○ MODERATING FOCUS GROUPS Participants have valuable views and the ability to respond actively, positively, and respectfully Moderating without participating: guide discussion rather than joining it There should be at least two researchers in the group: one moderator and one observer Be prepared for views that may be unpalatably critical of a topic which may be important to you A good quality multi-directional external microphone is recommended for recording. Videotaping is obtrusive and is not worthwhile for use in focus group sessions APPROACHES TO CONDUCTIVE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Experimental ○ Manipulation of variables in the study ○ Includes True Experimental ○ Sampling Is a technique of selecting a subset of the population to make statistical inferences and estimate the characteristics of the whole population Sample size using the Slovin’s Formula 𝑁 𝑛= 2 1+𝑁 𝑒 n = sample size N = total population e = error margin or margin of error; the researcher sets it. How many errors are possible in your study or what is the percentage na may error sa study mo Non-experimental ○ No manipulation of any variable in the study ○ Includes Descriptive, Correlational, Survey, Meta-analysis, and Quasi-experimental HANDS-ON GUIDE TO QUESTIONNAIRE RESEARCH FOR HEALTH RELATED FIELDS Questionnaires offer an objective means of collecting information about people’s knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors Using previously validated and published questionnaires will save you time and resources DESIGNING YOUR QUESTIONNAIRES Appropriate Omnicompetent Intelligble Appropriately coded Unambiguous Piloted Unbiased Ethical 27 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11 STEP BY STEP GUIDE TO QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN Decide what data you need Select items from inclusion Design the individual questions Compose wording Design the layout and presentation Think about coding Prepare a first draft and pre-test Pilot and evaluate ○ Pilot: testing first if the questionnaire gives you the data that you need Perform the survey Start again EXAMPLES OF FORMATS FOR PRESENTING QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS FORMAT HOW IT LOOKS ON A USES AND ADVANTAGES QUESTIONNAIRE Statements with tick box General attitude categories measurement. Easily understood and quick to complete. Generates data suitable for non-parametric statistical analysis Rating scales (see Quantities attitudes on a 5 or 3 𝑆𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑑 or 7-point scale and 2 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑛ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑚 for details differentiates between of different formats) positive and negative. Good for participants who can conceptualize linear scales and numerical values. Generates data suitable for non-parametric statistical analysis Visual analogue scales Precise quantification of attitudes. Good for participants who can conceptualize linear scales and have good visual skills. Data must be transformed for statistical analysis 28 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11 THINGS TO CONSIDER IN FORMULATING QUESTIONS Group similar questions together Avoid ambiguous words Be specific Options should not be overlapping Only one question per item CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Outcomes from doing the methodology, analyses of the outcomes When you’re done with the methodology Results: the facts, the observations, and any information that you’ve gathered from your methodology. Collection. Can be presented through figures, tables, etc. ○ Answers the question “what” about your research ○ Describes the experiments completed before the paper was written and what you’ve gathered from it ○ States the results but doesn’t interpret them ○ Includes only that data which will be relevant to the discussion section ○ Uses the simple past tense (since you’ve done it na) ○ You can include non-textual elements such as tables, figures, and images Discussion: analyses of your results. Drawn from the discovered facts, figures, or information coupled with the literature review to give a clear picture of the contrast between your findings and the previously collected data or information. ○ Answers the question “So what” about your research. Explained what, and why it happened to your research ○ Summarize and interpret the significance of the main findings of your study Interpret why those findings are important ○ Interpret the results but do not restate the result. What does the results mean? ○ Doesn’t introduce any new results in this section; so don’t make statements your results can’t support ○ Uses both the past and present tense as required You have to refer to your RRL kaya may present tense since nangyayari pa rin hanggang ngayon ○ Use only text although you can also refer to the non-textual elements or your results What do you need to do? ○ Screen the data ○ Analyze the screened data ○ Thoroughness Being thorough in analyzing the data ○ Use of visual aids Using graphs, tables, and other non-textual elements ○ Relation with Literature Review (10 years from now yung limit when finding RRLs) 29 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Shows the key findings and further improvement of your research paper We don’t just summarize and explain things It should be the answer to your research objectives or the answer should be based on your objectives Re-state the main idea and research objectives Main outcomes ○ The answers to your research objectives Suggest further proceedings and new prospects ○ To be added to the recommendations ○ Ideas you want to add 30 | Chelsea Jei Abulad 11 HA - 11