Religion Final Study Guide PDF

Final Study Guide 1. Violence and Religious Contexts a. Definitions and Types of Violence: i. Physical violence: direct harm or physical injury to individuals or groups (ie. religious wars) ii. Symbolic violence: Non-physical acts that reinforce...

Final Study Guide 1. Violence and Religious Contexts a. Definitions and Types of Violence: i. Physical violence: direct harm or physical injury to individuals or groups (ie. religious wars) ii. Symbolic violence: Non-physical acts that reinforce inequality, such as marginalization through language or rituals (ie. societal norms-- like laws discriminating against religious minorities) iii. Structural violence: systemic inequality embedded within societal institutions, often causing harm without direct physical action (ie. reinforces power dynamics-- like caste systems causing societal exclusions) b. Theories of Violence: i. Rational Choice Theory: explains violence as a calculated decision where individuals weigh the costs and benefits, often applied to acts like suicide bombings or religious wars 1. Posits that religious violence arises from perceived resource scarcity, including both material and spiritual rewards. For example, martyrdom is seen as a ration choice when it offers eternal salvation or divine rewards ii. Social Identity Theory: examines how group identities form thorough opposition to other, leading to “us vs. them” dynamics and potential conflict 1. Social identity theory highlights how group cohesion often forms in opposition to an “other,” fostering stereotypes and justifications for violence, such as Sunni vs. Shia conflicts iii. Myth of Religious Violence: 1. Critiques: suggests that the idea that religion uniquely causes violence is a Eurocentric construct, used historically to justify colonialism and marginalize non-Western groups a. Undermines the idea that secular ideologies are inherently less violent. Critique points out the violence histories of colonialism, nationalism, and imperialism often justified by secular ideals 2. Origins: emerged from Enlightenment critiques of Catholic-Protestant conflicts, presenting religion as absolutist, divisive, and irrational 2. Historical Jesus and Apocalyptic Beliefs a. Historical Jesus: i. Seditious Jesus: a revolutionary figure opposing Roman authority, as implied by his crucifixion for sedition (hung beside other revolutionaries, not thieves)  1. Some of Jesus’ actions (like his “temple tantrum” where he lashed out at money-changer’s with a whip and overturned their tables), reflect revolutionary zeal or symbolic protest in Roman society 2. “I bring not peace, but a sword” and its ambiguity supports the interpretation of Jesus as a seditious messiah 3. Apocalypticism fueled resistance movements under Roman occupation, providing theological justification for both nonviolent and militant actions. The idea of cosmic justice reassured oppressed groups of eventual vindication from their Roman oppressors a. Aligns with Jewish traditions ii. Nonviolent Jesus: emphasized teachings like “love your enemies” and “turn the other cheek” 1. Draws on ethical teachings that later define Christianity (along with his martyrdom) 2. Frames Jesus’ death as transformative, emphasizing spiritual salvation through sacrifice over political conquest b. Messianic Ideals: i. Davidic Warrior: traditional Jewish concept of the Messiah as a liberating military leader ii. Suffering Servant: a reinterpretation of messianic roles, viewing the Messiah as one who transforms through suffering c. Apocalypticism i. Cosmic dualism (ie. good vs evil, light vs darkness) ii. Zoroastrian influence on Jewish apocalyptic thought iii. Prophecies of an end-time savior restoring divine order 3. Christian and Islamic Martyrdom a. Christian Martyrdom: i. Jesus as the archetype: His crucifixion became a model for martyrdom, viewed as self-sacrifice for divine purposes 1. Christian martyrdom emerged as a narrative of resistance against Roman persecution. By sacralizing suffering, it solidified group identity and inspired converts. Tertullian’s famous quote, “The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church,” encapsulates this ethos ii. Post-Constantinian Shifts: legalization of Christianity under Constantine transformed martyrdom into a tool for imperial unity b. Islamic Martyrdom: i. Shahid: dying in the path of Allah, often framed as noble and rewarded with paradise 1. Islamic martyrdom highlights the tensions between traditional views of jihad and modern extremist interpretations. Classical jihad required authorization by a caliph, but modern jihadists claim individual duty overrides traditional rules, including prohibitions on  harming non-combatants, women, children, the elderly, and the infirmed ii. Jihad: 1. Jihad of the Sword: defensive or expansive warfare under specific conditions a. Traditional jihad emphasizes collective defense under legitimate authority, while modern interpretations often individualize the duty, justifying acts like terrorism 2. Jihad of Individual Duty: modern interpretation emphasize personal obligation, sometimes used to justify terrorism 4. Violence in Dharma Traditions a. Hinduism: i. Vedic Sacrifice: early rituals involving animal offerings, later replaced by symbolic offerings (ie. flowers, oils, coins/money, etc) ii. Karma: actions accruing consequences, reinforcing ethical conduct iii. Pravritti vs. Nivrtti: 1. Pravritti affirms worldly duties, including justifiable violence (ie. kingly dharma) a. Pravritti is the worldly path, where one lives in the midst of worldly duties and interest, and seeks salvation. Pravritti is characterized by sense enjoyment, and thoughts are mainly directed towards worldly things like hobbies, pleasure, and possessions 2. Nivritti emphasis renunciation and nonviolence (almost like yin and yang) a. Nivritti is the path of turning back, or turning within towards spiritual contemplation. Nivritti is characterized by renunciation of worldly aims, and placing God at the center of existence. Nivritti is also known as the path of spiritual advancement iv. The Bhagavad Gita addresses the ethical dilemma of violence in war, promoting detached action for dharmic duty. Kings were expected to use violence judiciously to maintain social order 1. By emphasizing the non-attachment to outcomes and dedicating actions to divine will, violence becomes a duty rather than a personal act b. Buddhism: i. Ambivalence towards violence: despite nonviolence as a core tenet, Buddhist texts justify defensive actions in certain contexts 1. While condemning violence, certain Mahayana texts validate killing demons to protect the Dharma 2. Vajrayana Buddhism incorporates symbolic depictions of violence in rituals  ii. Symbolic Violence: ritual cursing, karmic retribution, and mythological battles c. Jainism: i. Ahimsa: strict adherence to nonviolence, avoiding harm to any living being (even microscopic ones, Jainists will wear masks to avoid inhaling small creatures, and special shoe so they don’t trample on small bugs/animals) 1. Even unintentional harm is avoided, and ascetic practices (a lifestyle of self-denial and abstinence from worldly pleasures to achieve spiritual goals) aim to eliminate karmic debt and end the cycle of rebirth ii. Karma and Reincarnation: actions bind the soul to cycles of rebirth, making nonviolence a path to liberation 5. Nonviolence in American and Global History a. Gandhi’s Philosophy of Nonviolence: focused on self-rule in colonial India i. Nonviolence as Courage: advocates facing harm without retaliation as the highest form of moral bravery ii. Doctrine of the Sword: acknowledges violence as preferable to cowardice but insists on striving for nonviolence iii. Self-Purification: necessary mental discipline to commit to nonviolent actions iv. Gandhi saw nonviolence not merely as passive resistance but as active and courageous defiance. His campaigns in India, such as the Salt March, showcased how nonviolence could delegitimize oppressors b. MLK’s Nonviolent Strategy: targeted racial injustices in the U.S. i. Four steps: 1. Fact-finding to establish/confirm injustice 2. Negotiation for peaceful resolution (only possible if under a government that allows negotiation of any kind) 3. Self-purification to prepare for resistance (because reacting with violence is instinctual, and one must train to be stronger than hate) 4. Direct action to provoke attention to the issue (refer to Sharp’s methods) ii. Philosophy: emphasizes love over hate, suffering as transformative, and reconciliation over destruction iii. Inspired by Gandhi, King adapted nonviolence to the U.S. civil rights movement, achieving significant political and social change c. Gene Sharp’s Methods: i. Nonviolent Protest and Persuasion: symbolic acts like marches and petitions ii. Non-Cooperation: strikes, boycotts, an withdrawing allegiance iii. Nonviolent Intervention: disruptive tactics like sit-ins and occupations  iv. Sharo identified mechanism by which nonviolent actions could erode the power of oppressive regimes, emphasizing that power depends on the consent of the governed 6. Orientalism and Modern Conflicts a. Orientalism and Islamophobia: i. Orientalism: Western constructs of Eastern societies as exotic, irrational, and prone to violence (mirrors Myth of Religious Violence as it paints a civilized, secular West as superior to a savage, religious and primitive East) 1. Edward Said’s critique revealed how Western perceptions reinforced stereotypes and justified colonial policies. Modern examples include media portrayals of Muslims as monolithic and violent ii. Islamophobia: Post-9/11 stereotypes associating Islam with terrorism and extremism b. Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: i. Zionist narrative: Jewish nationalism seeking a homeland in response to European anti-Semitism and genocide ii. Palestinian narrative: resistance to foreign colonial imposition and displacement iii. Conflict narratives: The Israeli-Palestinian conflict showcases how competing historical and cultural claims are framed through religious and nationalistic lenses 1. Zionists emphasize safety and sovereignty for Jews, while Palestinains highlight resistance to displacement and imperialism c. Cultural Essentialism vs. Structuralism: i. Essentialism: attributes violence to inherent cultural traits (ie. “Islam is violent”) ii. Structuralism: emphasizes systemic causes, like colonial legacies, economic disparity, and political oppression 1. Challenges simplistic cultural explanations by pointing to external factors, such as Western interventions and socio-economic inequalities, and drivers of violence in the East