Speech Writing Principles and Types of Speeches PDF

Lesson 1. Principles of Speech Writing  An audience with a favourable attitude will express interest and support. They often raise relevant 1. Choose a Topic – The topic is the...

Lesson 1. Principles of Speech Writing  An audience with a favourable attitude will express interest and support. They often raise relevant 1. Choose a Topic – The topic is the questions or reaction that help subject of your speech, the idea or concept deepen the discussion of the topic. you want to share to your audience. 3. Source the information – Supporting information refers to the ideas that develop  You have to know more than your your topic. To make sure that your audience does. supporting is adequate and reliable.  Know which aspects of your topic are worth sharing  Your supporting information should  Research about your topic. be pertinent  Make sure your audience will be  Your supporting information should interested in what you have to say. vary.  This will be obvious from your  Use examples, charts, graphs gestures, facial and vocal and/or information technology to expressions. show variety in your presentation.  Make sure that your audience Video clips, animation may be used understands the value of your to draw their interest. speech topic to their lives. Explain it to them at the beginning of your speech. Emphasize it in the middle. 4. Organize and outline the speech Then repeat it in the end. contents – Organizing your speech  Keep in mind that an effective contents is important for two reasons: speaker will always consider his or her audience’s interest. a. It helps your listener to understand the connection between your ideas. 2. Analyze the audience – Audience analysis is the process of examining your b. It helps you ensure that all supporting audience according their demographics, information you have gathered will support attitude, and interest. and develop your main point.  Outlining helps you plan your speech by providing a tentative  Demographics refer to the framework of what you are going to characteristics such as gender, say. race, as gender, education, age, etc. Some speakers are surprised when their speech making and PREPARATION OUTLINE – Is an deliver fail when they did not outline helps you prepare the speech. consider audience demographics. This stage in the speech process helps  Audience attitude is another factor you decide what you put as your to consider. Is your audience’s introduction, body and conclusion. attitude favourable, indifferent or opposed?  REMEMBER: In writing the KINDS OF INFORMATIVE SPEECH: preparation outline, remember to label 1. Descriptive Speech – Provides the parts of your speech (IBC). Also a vivid picture of a person, a place, use a uniform pattern of symbolization. or an object. Provides an image of All main point should use roman the subject in the audience’s minds numerals. Subpoints can be marked through sensory details such as using capital letters. Finally, keep in mind that since it is an outline, feel free sight, sound, smell, touch, and use. to change the order of your ideas as well as the content of the speech. 2. Explanation Speech – explains or defines a concept, term, or an abstract topic. Provides facts, Lesson 2. Types of Speeches etymology of words or concepts, SPEECH – Any type of formal/informal classification, examples, and other discourse intended to delivered or orated relevant details. to audience/s. 3. Demonstration Speech – PUBLIC SPEAKING – The act of speaking Presents information about how to in front of a sizable number of people. do something or how something is Involves a single speaker and an done. It gives the audience audience. And, speaker is tasked to deliver information of a certain process. a message or a speech of general interest. 4. Reportorial Speech – TWO TYPES OF SPEECH: Describes or explains an event or an issue that is interesting, A. Types of Speech according to significant, or unusual. It helps to purpose explain to the audience what 1.EXPOSITORY/INFORMATIVE SPEECH happened, why it happened and what resulted from the event. It also - Aims to provide the audience with promotes understanding by information about a topic or to expand their presenting the reasons for why an knowledge about a topic with which they issue exists and what its are already familiar. implications and effects are. - Intends to educate the audience through providing information about a particular topic or subject. 2. PERSUASIVE SPEECH - Aims to influenced the audience to accept the speaker’s position or stand on an issue. - Speaker’s goal is to convince or encourage audiences to accept a perspective. KINDS OF PERSUASIVE SPEECH: - May be delivered during casual dinners, parties, graduations, and weddings. 1. Convincing Speech – The speaker attempts to convince the audience to adopt his or her way of VALUES INTEGRATION – The art of thinking or to change the way they speaking must be anchored to reality think about things. circumstances to value the essence of life and the community that surrounds it. 2. Actuation Speech – Designed to urge the audience to take a B. Types of Speech according to particular action. The speaker delivery seeks to persuade the audience to start doing the action now. 1. Reading/Speaking from Manuscript – Implies reading a pre-written speech, paper script or teleprompter. RHETORICAL APPEALS IN PERSUASIVE SPEECHES: 2. Memorized Speech – Speech that is committed and delivered entirely from A. Ethos – Appeal to the speaker’s memory. credibility or authority as perceived by the audience. 3. Impromptu Speech – Speech that is B. Pathos – Appeal to the audience’s delivered on the spot with no chance to emotion. prepare or memorize. C. Logos – Appeal to logic or reason. 4. Extemporaneous Speech – A speech GUIDELINES IN WRITING A is given without any special advance PERSUASIVE SPEECH: preparation and is delivered without the help of notes and others. (3 mins is the 1. Determine your goal. maximum time of preparation) 2. Know your audience. 3. Organize the information. Lesson 3. Communicative Strategies 4. Provide strong evidence. Communication - is the heart of the community. Being able 3. Entertainment Speech to use various communicative strategies leads to the achievement of the speech - Aims to amuse audience members and purpose and creates a smooth flow of put them in a jovial mood. information between the speakers and the - Its primary focus is to entertain an listeners. Poor communication strategy audience or create a pleasant or allows for information blockages. interesting diversion. Communicative strategies 7. Repair – refers to how speakers address the problem in speaking, listening - are plans, ways or means of sharing and comprehending that they may information that are adopted to achieve a encounter in a conversation. For example, particular social, political, psychological, or if everybody. in the conversation seems to linguistic purpose. talk at the same time, give way and These are the strategies that people appreciate other's initiative to set the use: conversation back to its topic. 1. Nomination – Employed when you try 8. Termination – refers to the conversation to open a topic with the people you are participants close-initiating expressions talking to. You may start off with news that end a topic in a conversation. Most of inquiries and news announcements as the time, the one who initiated the they promise extended talk. This could conversation takes responsibility to signal signal the beginning of a new topic in the the concluding cues. You can do this by conversation. sharing what you learned or complete the discussion of the topic 3. Restriction – refers to any limitation you may have as a speaker. You are given specific instruction that you must follow. These instructions confine you as a speaker and limit what you can say. 4. Turn – taking pertains to the process by which people decide who takes the conversation floor. There is a code of behavior behind establishing and sustaining a productive conversation, but the primary idea is to give all communicators a chance to speak. 5. Topic Control – covers how procedural formality or informality affects the development of topic in conversations. This is achieved cooperatively. When a topic is initiated, it should be collectively developed by avoiding unnecessary interruptions and topic shifts. You can say "Yes," "okay," "go on," or asking tag questions to be actively involved without dominating. 6. Topic shifting – involves moving from one topic to another. You have to be very intuitive. Make sure that the previous topic was nurtured enough to generate adequate views. You may say, "by the way," "in addition to what you said," "which reminds me of," and the like. Lesson 4. SPEECH ACT SPEECH ACTS – Are performed when a person offers an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation, compliment, refusal. Speech act is an act of communication. - It is an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve an intended effect. THREE TYPES OF SPEECH ACT: - According to J.L. Austin (1962) a philosopher of language and the developer of the Speech Act Theory, there are three types of acts in every utterance, given the right circumstances or context. These are: 1. LOCUTIONARY – Is the actual of uttering or saying something. This act happens with the utterances of a sound, a word or even a phrase as a natural unit of The response may not necessarily be speech. physical or verbal and is elicited by: - inspiring or insulting - persuading/convincing; or For the utterances to be a Locutionary Act, - deterring/scaring consider the following: It has sense, and mostly importantly, for communication to Example: “Please do the dishes” would take place. lead to the addressee washing the dishes. - It has the same meaning to both the speaker and the listener. - Utterances give rise to shared meaning when it is adjusted by the speaker for the listener. Example: “Please do the dishes.” 2. ILLOCUTIONARY - is the social function of what is said. - In an illocutionary speech act, it is not just saying something itself but with the act of saying something with the intention of: - stating an opinion, - conforming, or denying something; - making a prediction, a promise, a request; - issuing an order or a decision; or giving advice or permission. Example: By uttering “Please do the dishes” the speaker request the addressee to wash the dishes. 3. PERLOCUTIONARY - refers to the consequent effect of what was said. This is based on the particular context in which the speech act was mentioned. This Lesson 1. Elections and Political Parties in is seen when a particular effect is sought the Philippines from either the speaker or the listener, or both. Suffrage – is the right and obligation to citizens of a country for their ratification or vote of qualified citizens in the election of rejection. certain national and local officers of the government and in the decision of public questions submitted to the people. 4. Initiative – It is the process whereby the people directly propose and enact laws. NATURE OF SUFFRAGE: 1. A Mere Privilege – Suffrage is not a 5. Recall – It is a method by which a public natural right of the citizens but merely a officer may be removed from the office privilege to be given or withheld by the law- during his tenure or before the expiration of his term by a vote of the people after the making power subject to constitutional registration of a petition signed by a limitations. required percentage of the qualified voters. 2. A political right – Suffrage enables every citizen to participate in the process of government to assure that it can be truly RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE: said to derive its powers from the consent of the governed. The principle is that of - Right of Suffrage or right to vote is defined man, one vote. in Section 1, Article V of the 1987 Constitution. - Not a natural right, but a privilege is given SCOPE OF SUFFRAGE: to the citizens. Suffrage includes: - Suffrage is a powerful tool of the people 1. Election – It is the means which the that involves the selection of public officials who will run the government and represent people choose their officials for definite and fixed period and to whom they entrust, their concerns through the laws proposed and supported in congress. for the time being as their representatives, the exercise of powers of government. QUALIFICATIONS FOR VOTER REGISTRATION: 2. Plebiscite – It is the name given to a vote for the people expressing their choice He must be: for or against a proposed law or enactment submitted to them. Plebiscite is likewise 1. A citizen (male or female) of the required by the Constitution to secure the Philippines. approval of the people directly affected 2. Not otherwise disqualified by law before certain changes affecting local government units may be implemented. 3. At least eighteen (18) years of age 4. Have resided in the Philippines for at least one (1) year and in the place wherein 3. Referendum – It is the submission of a he proposes to vote for at least six (6) law or part thereof passed by the national months preceding the election. or local legislative body to the voting COMMISSION ON ELECTIONS - Represent a certain group in society, (COMELEC) – Is the agency that enforces ensuring their rights and advocacies are and administers laws and regulations voiced out directly to the government. relative to conduct of elections. - Organized group of citizens advocating - Voter Registration an ideology or platform, principles, and - Filing of Candidacy policies for the general conduct of - Campaign and Voting Period government and which, as the most - Canvassing of votes immediate means of securing their - Declaration of Winners adaption, regularly nominates and - Election Complaints supports certain of its leaders or members as candidates for public office. TYPES OF ELECTORAL SYSTEM 1. Plurality System – the candidate with the most votes is declared as the winner Characteristics of a Political Party even if they do not get the majority of the votes. - One of the primary characteristics of a political party is its objective to control the exercise of governmental powers by 2. Majority System – The candidate must placing its own members in the public get the majority votes in order to win. offices through which the policies of government are determined. A second characteristic of a political party is its 3. Proportional Representation - People intention to use governmental powers for will vote for parties and their party will have purposes which meet with the general the same percentage of positions in the approval of its leaders and the rank and file government as the percentage of votes of its membership. they got in the elections. - Also, while most groups focus on a single issue, a political party participates in all issues relative for the government. Meaning of Political Party – As stated by Marume et al (2016), a political is defined TYPES OF POLITICAL PARTIES as an organized and presumably durable 1. National Party – has members that can association, either of individuals or of be found all over the country or at least the distinguishable groups of individuals, majority of the regions. which endeavours to place its members in governmental offices for the purpose of bringing about the adoption of favored political policies or programes. Of all the 2. Regional Party – has member that can characteristics of parties, the one which be found all over the region or at least the distinguishes them from all other majority of the cities and provinces associations evincing a substantial interest comprising the region. in public affairs is their effort to secure the election or the appointment of their own personnel to the public positions through 3. Sectoral Party – has members which the policies of government are belonging to marginalized sectors like prescribed for implementation. labor, peasant, women, fisherfolk, urban poor etc. and whose principal advocacy of them is regularly able to muster pertains to the special interest and sufficient voting strength to capture concerns of their sectors. control of government. Example: Philippines, Spain, Sweden, Taiwan, Indonesia, South Korea 4. Coalition – national, regional, sectoral 4. Party List System parties coming together to form a bloc. - Is a mechanism of proportional TYPES OF ELECTORAL SYSTEM representation in the election of 1. One-party system representatives in the House of Representatives (HoR) - An open system of the one-party variety exists in those jurisdictions - Partylist representatives comprise 20% in which a particular party is so of the total number of representations of much stronger than any of its the HoR. nominal competitors that it almost - There are several political parties that invariably is successful in winning stand for the election in the country. The control of the government. Nacionalista Party, the Liberal Party, the Example: North Korea, China Lakas-CMD, the PDP-LABAN, the 2. Bi or two-party system Nationalist People's Coalition, the Laban ng Demokratikong Pilipino, the - The earmark of a two-party Akbayan and the Philippine Democratic system is their existence of two Socialist Party are the parties with largest major parties which are so strongly membership in Congress. supported that one or the other ordinarily emerges as the victor in - Political Parties are required to register elections and consequently gains with the COMELEC with a verified petition mastery of the government. with attachments including a constitution, Although one of these parties may by-laws, platform, and such other win a series of victories, its chief information as may be required by the competitors always is the running COMELEC. They are required to have and sooner or later manages to chapters in a majority of regions, and within defeat its opponent. Example: In each region, a majority of provinces, down the US-Republican vs Democrats to towns and barangays. 3. Multiparty system Multiple-party systems - are featured by the presence of a LESSON 2. CITIZENSHIP fairly large number of parties with compete with one another on Citizen relatively equal terms. Several parties may be considerably in A member of a democratic comparison with their minor community who enjoys full civil and competitors, but they lack the political rights and is accorded strength of the major parties under protection inside and outside the a genuine two-party system. None territory of the state. Citizens may be regarded by all nations either  born in their territories or born of they are deemed, under the law, to have their citizens, or it could be both. renounced it. Citizenship It denotes membership of a citizen REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9225 in a political society which membership implies, reciprocally, a Citizenship Retention and Re-acquisition duty of allegiance on the part of the Act of 2003 members and duty of protections "Natural-born citizens of the Philippines on the part of the state. who have lost their Philippine citizenship because of their naturalization as citizens of a foreign country are at this moment ACQUISITION OF CITIZENSHIP deemed to have re-acquired Philippine citizenship upon taking oath of allegiance  Involuntary method to the Republic". - By birth because of blood relationship - By birth because of blood relationship (jus The following are citizens of the sanguinis) or place of birth (jus soli). Philippines: Membership in a nation is largely Voluntary involuntary; that is most people initially become citizens of a nation and subject to  By naturalization in a foreign its rules without any deliberate choice or country. conscious act (Ranney, 1995)  By express renunciation of citizenship  Voluntary method  By supporting the constitution and - by naturalization laws of a foreign country  By rendering service to the armed - Naturalization as cited by De Leon (2014) forces of a foreign country is the act of formally adopting a foreigner into the political body of the state and Obligations of Citizens clothing him with the rights and privileges Loyalty or have a sense of patriotism. of citizenship. It is a voluntary method of acquiring citizenship by renouncing his Obeys law. former citizenship and embracing a new one. Participation in political processes Ways of Reacquiring Citizenship Lesson 1. Life  By the repatriation of deserters of What is Life – The condition that the Philippine armed forces distinguishes animals and plants from  By a direct act of the Congress inorganic matter, including the capacity for  By naturalization growth, reproduction, functional activity, and continual change preceding death. Citizens who marry aliens shall retain their LIFE PROCESSES citizenship unless by their act or omission Living Things - Plants and animals use the oxygen in the - Although all living things look different air to turn food into energy. from each other, they all have seven things in common. 7. GROW - These seven things are called life - Babies into grow into adults processes. - Seedlings grow into plants - Something is only alive if it does all seven processes. THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE ALL LIVING THINGS ARE... 1668 – Francesco Redi (First Scientist to use a control group) 1. MOVE  Observed flies land on meat that - Animals move their whole bodies later develops maggots. to get from one place to another.  Hypothesis: Maggots come from flies. - Plants turn towards the light and  Experiment their roots grow down into the soil. o Control – Jars with meat covered 2. REPRODUCE o Experimental – Jars with - Animals have babies. meat open - New plants grow from seeds.  Result: Open jar had flies and maggots 3. SENSITIVE  Conclusion: Maggots come from - All living things respond to flies. changes. Living things notice  Critics said there were no maggots changes in their surroundings and in the closed jar because there react to them. was no air! - E.g. Plants grow towards the light.  Redi redesigned his experiment - E.g. People react to the and covered the jar with netting. temperature around them.  Result: Flies and maggots were on the netting, not in the jar. His 4. NUTRITION hypothesis was correct! - Food is used to provide energy. - Green plants make their own food 1700’s – Spallanzani using sunlight.  Hypothesis: Microbes do not - Animals eat plants or other come from broth animals.  Experiment: o Flask with boiled gravy left open – microbes grew 5. EXCRETE o Flask with boiled gravy - Waste substances must be removed from sealed – no growth the body.  Critics said “no air” – no redesign - Plants and animals both need to get rid of waste gas and water. 1868 – Pasteur  Redesigned Spallanzani’s 6. RESPIRE experiment using a swan-necked flask,   Flask was left open – no growth. - External sources (comets, asteroids,  Critics said “bad broth” meteors)  Pasteur broke off the neck and - 100’s of tons of debris fall to Earth each growth began persevered and year. proved his point. MURCHISON METEORITE (1969) OMNE VIVUM EX VIVO – Life only  74 amino acids- 8 used by life on comes from life. earth, 55 extraterrestrial found  All 5 bases used in DNA/RNA WHEN DID LIFE FROM? found  Age of the Earth: 4.6 billion years  Simple sugars and fatty acids  Oldest rocks: 3.8 – 4.0 B.Y. were found.  Oceans established > 3.8 B.Y.A.  Life not possible during period of PROBLEMS STILL TO OVERCOME heavy bombardment – 4.0 B.Y. A.  Miller – Urey type experiments do  Signatures of life: ^12C/^13C not produce all of the ingredients suggests photosynthetic life for DNA and RNA. existed – 4.0 B.Y.A.  Earth’s primitive atmosphere still debatable (though the absence of EARLIEST LIFE ON EARTH free oxygen is a must) Stromatolites – 3.8 B.Y.A.  Sources of energy are varied  However, definite pathways to life Earliest known fossils – 3.5 B.Y. are evident in each experiment. MILLER UREY EXPERIMENT Lesson 2. Cell History  Water vapor + methane + H2 + Ch4 + ammonia NH3 Cytology – study of cells.  Primitive ocean  Source of energy ROBERT HOOKE  Condensation and recycle - 1665 English Scientist  Ran for a week - Used a microscope to examine cork  Condensed mixture contained (plant) amino acids and complex organic - Hooke called what he saw “cells” molecules.  Problem – Early atmosphere was ROBERT BROWN mostly CO2, little methane and - Discovered the nucleus in 1833. ammonia  Experiment redone with CO2 and MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN UV light - German Botanist  Less quantities but produced all - All plants are composed of Cells amino acids found in life on Earth  Complex sugars and lipids formed THEODOR SCHWANN  All 5 chemical bases used in DNA - Also in 1838, discovered that animals and RNA formed were made of cells. Other sources of Organic Molecules RUDOLF VIRCHOW - 1885, German Physician  Found only in the Eubacteria and - Cells only come from other cells. Archaebacteria. - His statement debunked “Theory of Spontaneous Generation” CELLULAR ORGANELLES 1. THE PLASMA MEMBRANE CELL THEORY – The combined work of - The boundary of the cell. Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow make - Composed of three distinct up the modern Cell Theory. layers. - Two layers of fat and one layer of It states that: protein. 1. All living things are composed of a cell - It protects inside or cells. 2. Cells are the basic unit of life. 2. NUCLEUS 3. All cells come from preexisting cells. - Brain of Cell - Bordered by a porous membrane EXPLORING CELL DIVERSITY Or nuclear envelope. CELL SIZE - Contains thin fibers of DNA and  Female Egg – largest cell in the protein called CHROMATIN. human body, seen without the aid - Rod shaped Chromosomes. of a microscope.  Most cells are visible only with a 3. RIBOSOMES microscope. - Small non-membrane bound organelles. CELL SHAPE - Contain two sub-units  Diversity of form reflects a - Site of protein synthesis. diversity of function. - Protein factory of the cell.  The shape of a cell depends on its - Either free floating or attached function. to the ER. INTERNAL ORGANIZATION 4. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - Complex network of transport EUKARYOTIC CELLS Channels.  Plant Cell - TWO TYPES:  Animal Cell 1. Smooth – ribosome free  Contains a nucleus and other and functions in poison membrane bound organelles. Detoxification.  Rod shaped chromosomes. 2. Rough – contains ribosomes and releases  Found in all kingdoms except newly made protein from Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. the cell. PROKARYOTIC CELLS 5. GOLGI APPARATUS  Does not contain a nucleus or - A series of flattened sacs that other membrane bound modifies packages, stores, and organelles. Transports materials out of the  Circular chromosome cell. - Works with the ribosomes and  Endoplasmic Reticulum. - Stores waster and helps the cell get rid of waste. 6. LYSOSOMES - Recycling center (Recycle 12. CELL WALL cellular debris) - Extra structure surrounding its - Membrane bound organelle plasma membrane in plants, containing a variety of enzymes. algae, fungi and bacteria. - Internal pH is 5. - Cellulose – Plants - Help digest food particles inside - Chitin – Fungi or outside the cell. - Peptidoglycan – Bacteria - Only in plants, made of cellulose 7. CENTRIOLES - Dead layer - Found only in animal cells. - Paired organelles found together 13. CYTOPLASM near the nucleus, at right angles to - Materials for growth are found in each other. cytoplasm. - Role in building cilia and flagella. HOW BIG ARE CELLS: 8. CYTOSKELETON - Smallest free-living cell: - Framework of the cell. Mycoplasma Genitalium. - Contains small microfilaments - Human red blood cell = 8 um in and larger microtubules. diameter. - They support the cell, giving it its - Largest cell on human body = shape and help with the egg cell. removement of its organelles. - Size = 100 um in diameter (1mm) - Smallest cell in the human body 9. MITOCHONDRION = sperm cell. - Double Membranous - Largest cell with a metabolism = - It’s the size of a bacterium chaos chaos - Contains its own DNA; mDNA - Size = 1-5 mm in length. = Giant - Produces high energy compound Amoeba. ATP. - Largest cell: Yolk of an Ostrich Egg 10. CHLOROPLAST - Double membrane - Center section contains grana TYPES OF MICROSCOPES - Thykaloid (coins) make up the 1. Compound light microscope grana. - Light passes through lenses to - Stroma – gel-like material magnify image up to 1000x surrounding grana. - Can observe living cells. - Found in plants and algae. 2. Electron Microscope 11. VACUOLE - Uses a beam of electrons to - Sacs that help in food digestion magnify image > 1000x or helping the cell maintain its - Kills cells being observed. water balance. - Stores water and food materials. CELL STRUCTURE:  - A cell is like a small town. Different - In wrasses, sex reveal is parts have different and specialized associated with age, size and jobs. social conditions. - Plant cells and animal cell have - Fish are female first. many similar structures, but several - The largest female becomes male important differences. if the previous male dies. PARTS OF A SPERM CELL FERTILIZATION – Fusion of egg and - Head sperm into a single diploid cell, the zygote. - Neck - Middle Piece EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION - - Nucleus Fertilization takes place outside the - Nucleus female’s body. - Acrosome - A wet environment is required so - Plasma Membrane gametes don’t dry out and so - Mitochondrion sperm may swim to the eggs. - Tail - Environmental cues (day length, temperature) or chemical cues may PARTHENOGENESIS cause a whole population to - Involves the development of an release gametes at once. embryo from an unfertilized egg or - Increases likelihood of fertilization. one where the sperm & egg nuclei did not fuse. PHEROMONES – Are chemical signals released into the environment by one AMEIOTIC PARTHENOGENESIS organism that influence the physiology or - No meiosis, egg is formed by behaviour of members of the same mitosis (diploid) species. MEIOTIC PARTHENOGENESIS - Effective in very small amounts. - Haploid ovum formed by meiosis, it - Mate attractants. may be activated by a male (or not). GENE ENGINEERING – Changing the HERMAPHRODITISM DNA in living organisms to create - Occurs when an organism has both something new. male and female reproductive systems. This organisms are called Genetically - Monoecious Modified Organism (GMO) - Some can fertilize themselves, - Usually a mate is required – they Example: Bacteria that produce human can fertilize each other. insulin. Genetically Modified organism are called SEQUENTIAL HERMAPHRODITISM transgenic organism; since genes are - An individual reverses its sex transferred from one organism to another. during its lifetime. Some genetic engineering techniques are as follows:  1. Artificial Selection –. breeders - Example: Luther Burbank created a choose which organism to mate to disease resistant potato called the produce offspring with desired Burbank potato. traits - He crosses a disease resistant - They cannot control what genes plant with one that had a large food are passed producinig capacity. - When they get offspring with the - Result: Disease resistant plant that desired traits the maintain them. makes a lot of potatoes. THREE TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL - Liger: Lion and tiger mix. SELECTION: A. Selective breeding – when C. Inbreeding – difference animals with desired between individuals of a characteristics are mated to. species. The differences are in - Passing of important genes to next the genes but we see the generation. physical differences. - Example: Champion race horses, - For example: Some humans have cows with tender meat, large juicy blond hair and some have brown. oranges on a tree. This is a variation among humans. - For example people breed dogs for - Some finches have short breaks, specific purposes. some have long breaks. - Dachshund were once bred to hunt - Inbreeding decreases variations badgers and other burrowing animals. 2. Cloning –. - They must be small to fit into the - creating an organism that is an animals hole in the ground. exact genetic copy of another - Selective breeding occurs when There are human clones in our you choose the best male and school. female to breed. - Identical twins are naturally created - This allows you to fine tune and clones. control the traits. - Clone: group of cells or organisms - The offspring or babies will then that are genetically identical as a have the best traits. result of asexual reproduction. - Then you can continue to breed - They will have the same exact DNA those organism with the best traits, as the parent. those traits will be maintained. - Examples Selective Breeding: HOW IS CLONING DONE? Angus cows are bred to increase - A single cell is removed from a musle mass so that we get more parent organism. meat. - An entire individual is grown from - Egg-laying Hen- produces more that cell. eggs than the average hen. - Remember one cell has all the DNA needed to make an entire B. Hybridization – two individuals organism. with unlike characteristics are - Each cell in the body has the same crosses to produce the best in DNA, but cells vary because both organisms. different genes are turned on in each cell.  - Dolly was the first mammal cloned. 1. A restriction enzyme cuts the - She had the same exact DNA as insulin gene out of the human DNA. her mother and had no father. 2. A plasmid is removed from a - Cloning is a form of asexual bacteria and cut with a restriction reproduction. enzyme. - Only one genetic parent. - Since Dolly, cats and other 4. Gel electrophoresis: analysing organisms have been cloned. DNA - The cat that was cloned had the same exact different color fur than the mother. TISSUES, ORGANS, AND SYSTEMS: 3. Gene Splicing – DNA is cut out of one organism and put into another Organization of Your Body: organism. There are four levels of organization, it is - A trait will be transferred from one called a HIERARCHY. organism to another. 1. Cells, - For example: the human insulin 2. Tissues gene can be removed from a 3. Organs human cell. 4. Organ Systems - It can be put into a bacterial cell. - The bacteria will now make human Bodies of vertabrates (animals with insulin. spines) are composed of different cell BENEFITS: types – Human have 210. 1. Insulin is cheaper 2. There are no side effects because it is human insulin. TISSUES – Are group of cells that are 3. We once used pig insulin but similar to structure and function. there are side effects and it more expensive. In adult vertebrates, there are four primary HOW ARE GENES CUT FOR GENE tissues: SPLICING? - A bacterial plasmid is used. CONNECTIVE TISSUE: Provides support - Plasmid: Circular DNA in a and structure to the body, also fills bacterial cell. It is very simple and spaces. The most abundant tissue in the easy to manipulate. human body. RESTRICTION ENZYME - enzyme - Ex: Blood, bones, cartilage, and that cuts the DNA at a specific code. fat. - There are thousands of restriction enzymes. MUSCLE TISSUE: Contracts and relaxes - Some look for GGCC and cut in to support movement. Three types: between the G and C. Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. - Every time GGCC is found in the DNA it is cut by the restriction enzyme. Ex: HOW SPLICING DONE? Cardiac muscle contracts to pump blood through the body; Organ systems communicate, Skeletal muscle moves the bones when integrate, support and move, directed by brain. maintain and regulate, defend, Smooth muscle contracts in digesting. reproduce the body. EPITHELIA TISSUE: Communicate outside environment - Separates, protects, and keeps changes: Three organ systems organs in place. detect external stimuli and - Covers the body surface and coordinate the body’s responses. forms the lining of most organs. - Nervous, sensory, and - Ex: Skin (epidermis) & inside of endocrine systems. mouth. Support and Movement: The NERVE TISSUE: musculoskeletal system consists of - Responds to stimuli in the two interrelated organ systems. environment; - Controls movement, reflexes and THE NERVOUS SYSTEM – To coordinate receives sensory information. the body’s response to changes in its - Ex: Brain tissue, Spinal Cord internal and external environment. Tissue, Peripheral nerve cells. Major Organs and Their Functions: ORGANIZATION OF YOUR BODY Brain – control center of the body, where 3. Organs: are combinations of all processes are relayed through. different tissues that form a - Consists of cerebrum structural and functional UNIT. (CONTROLS THOUGHTS AND Any organ that is essential to life is called SENSES) a vital organ. - Cerebellum (CONTROLS MOTOR FUNCTIONS) Examples: - Heart: Pumps blood throughout Spinal Cord - sends instructions from the body. brain to the rest of the body and vice versa. - Liver: Removes toxins from the - Any organism with a major nerve blood, produces chemicals that cord is classified as a chordate. help in digestion. - Lungs: Supplies oxygen to the Nerves - conduct impulses to muscle cell blood and removes CO2 from throughout the body. blood. - Brain: The control center of the THE SKELETAL SYSTEM – To provide body. structure, support and movement to the 4. Organ systems: Are groups of human body. organs that cooperate to perform the major activities of the body. Bones are where new blood cells are - The vertebrate body contains 11 generated (in the marrow) and require the principal organ systems. mineral calcium for strength. OVERVIEW OF ORGAN SYSTEMS THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM – to dissolve contain haemoglobin, an iron-rich protein food so it can be absorbed into the that carries oxygen; white blood cells bloodstream and used by the body. functions in the immune system; platelets help in blood clotting. Mouth – to chew and grind up food - Saliva also begins to breakdown Spleen - helps to filter out toxins in the food into particles. blood. Esophagus – Pipe connecting mouth to THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM – to stomach. provide the body with oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide. Stomach – produces acid that breakdowns food. Nose & Mouth - internal entry and exit point for air. Small intestine – Digested food moves through intestine by Vili. The Vili absorbs Pharynx – serves as a passage way for nutrients and water from digested food. both air and food at the back of the throat. Large Intestine – removes water from the Larynx – your “voiceback”, as air passes digested food and gets the waste ready for over your vocal chords, you speak. excretion. Trachea - the “windpipe”, or what connects THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM – to deliver your pharynx to your lungs. oxygenated blood to the various cells and organ systems in your body so they can undergo cellular respiration. Heart – the major muscle of the circulatory system; pumps blood through its four chambers (two ventricles and two atria); pumps deoxygenated blood into the lungs, where it gets oxygenated, returned to the heart, and then pumped out through the aorta to the rest of the body; valve regulate the flow of blood between the chambers. Arteries – carry blood away from the heart and to the major organs of the body. Veins - carry blood back to the heart away from the major organs of the body. Capillaries – small blood vessels where gas exchange occurs. Blood – the cells that flow through the circulatory system; red blood cells Lesson 7. Imaging and Design for the Online 2. Emphasis. An area in the design that Environment may appear different in size, texture, shape or color to attract the viewer’s attention. WHAT IS AN IMAGE? 3. Movement. Visual elements guide the Images may be 2-dimensional, viewer’s eyes around the screen. such as a photograph or screen display, or 3- dimensional, such as a statue or 4. Pattern. Builds course. It builds hologram. They may be captured by optical familiarity and organizes design for devices–such as cameras, mirrors, lenses, trouble-free viewing. telescopes, microscopes, etc. and natural 5. Repetition. Makes design aware. It objects and phenomena, such as the human eye or water. brings consistency and flow to the design. Graphics – are visual images or designs 6. Proportion. Conveys stability. It on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, involves scaling of various elements to screen, paper, or stone to inform, illustrate, create a coherent design. or entertain (e.g. Photographs & drawings, line art, graphs, typography and numbers, 7. Harmony. Brings elements closer. It etc.) utilizes familiar traits of design elements and puts them into focus. IMAGE FORMAT 1. Joint Photographic Experts Group 8. Contrast. Addresses conflict. It (JPEG) – does not support transparency highlights the difference and puts an and animation. (.jpeg or jpg) emphasis to what is important. 2. Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) – 9. Variety. Reaps attention. It adds flavor supports transparency and animation (.gif) to the design, making it more interesting and engaging. 3. Portable Networks Graphics (PNG) – supports transparency but not in animation INFOGRAPHICS (.png) Infographics – Information graphics or LAYOUT infographics are used to represent information, statistical data, or knowledge 1. Layout – is part of graphic design that in a graphical manner usually done in a deals in the arrangement of visual creative way to attract the viewer’s elements on a page. attention. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GRAPHICS 5 PRINCIPLES IN MAKING AN AND LAYOUT: EFFECTIVE INFOGRAPHIC DESIGN: 1. Balance. The visual weight of objects, 1. Be Unique texture, colors, and space is evenly 2. Make It Simple distributed on the screen. 3. Be Creative and Bold 4. Less is More 5. The Importance of Getting it Across  4. Compression and Resizing. The higher the quality and the larger the photo is, the bigger the file size of the picture is. 5. Filters. Making the image look sketched, grainy, classic black and white or even let it have neon colors. This gives your image a twist from its original look. 6. Cloning. Copying or duplicating a part Infographic Video – is a visual of an image. representation of data and knowledge in the form of an online video. 7. Changing the Background. Adding background to make your image stand out. IMAGE PRINCIPLES, TECNIQUES & HOSTING 8. Removing the Color. Removing certain colors in your image or desaturating the 3 IMAGE MANIPULATION PRINCIPLES color of the image. 1. Choose the right file format. Try to 9. Combining Text, Graphics and Image. make a real - life photograph into GIF to Adding multiple elements in your layout. see the difference between PNG, GIF, and JPEG. Knowing the purpose is the key to finding out the best file format. 2. Choose the right image size. A camera with 12 megapixels constitutes to a bigger image size. Monitors have a resolution limit, so even if you have a million megapixels, it will not display everything. 3. Caption it. Remember to put a caption on images whenever possible. If it is not related to the web page, then remove it. 9 IMAGE MANIPULATION TECHNIQUES 1. Cropping. Cutting parts away to remove distracting or irrelevant elements. 2. Color Balance. The ambience and the Lesson 8. COLLABORATIVE ICT tone of light of the picture (ex. Warm or cool DEVELOPMENT light) 3. Brightness and Contrast. One of the Online Collaboration - Simply put, online most basic techniques in image editing, collaboration lets a group of people work making the image darker or lighter. together in real-time over the internet. Web Conference - provides live places them in one location in a uniform audio/video communication between two way. or more locations to conduct meetings, training, or presentations via the Internet. Yahoo.com – offers a web portal a web portal where news, email, weather, etc. are DIFFERENCE ON ONLINE COLAB & found in one page. WEB CONFERENCE The difference between Online Collaboration and Web conference is that Online collaboration is sharing information to each other to come with a way to achieve the groups goal. While in Web Conference is more like a meeting to discuss about a certain topic. Encryption - additional layer of security Online Collaborative Tools – are tools that makes content unreadable for people that can help your group “go the distance” with malicious intent. and work as if you already have your own office. Working together does not SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - is the necessarily mean you have to be standard security technology for physically together. establishing an encrypted link between a web server and a browser. Facebook Groups – allows you to create a group page that will allow people in your ONLINE COLLABORATIVE TOOLS group to communicate your ideas. AND WEB PORTAL WordPress – allows you to have multiple Facebook would not be that interesting if it contributors for a single blog. were not for all your friends. In fact, the more friends you have, the more content G Suite – is a brand of cloud computing, you get. This also rings true for other productivity and collaboration tools, websites and blogs. It is now time for us to software and products developed by create a collaborative ICT content. Google. It comprises Gmail, Hangouts, Calendar, and Google+ for Web Portal – is a website that contains communication. information from different sources and Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides – are a Online Games – Game developers now word processor, a spreadsheet and a create what is called “browser-based presentation program respectively, all part games.” You do not need to install these of a free, web-based software office suite games to your computer as they run in offered by Google within its Google Drive most updated web browsers service. (AdventureQuest, Farmville, Candy Crush, BigFish) Microsoft Office Online – allows multiple people to work on different office files. Online Tests – Online survey forms and tests that automatically display the results Microsoft’s Yammer – offers companies when finished (Online IQ and Personality to have their own social network that allows Tests). sharing and managing content. Courseware – Online courses that Trello – offer an online to-do checklist for simulate the classroom online (e.g., E- your entire team. learning Courses using a Learning Management System) Lesson 9. Interactive Multimedia Podcasts – An episodic series of audio or Interactive Multimedia – any computer- text files streamed online (e.g., Stuff You delivered electronic system that allows the Should Know, TED Talks, The Starters, Ear user to control, combine, and manipulate Biscuits). different types of media, such as text, sound, video, computer graphics, and Vodcasts – An episodic series of video animation. streamed online (e.g., YouTube series/shows like Video Game High School, Good Mythical Morning). Lesson 10. ICT as Platform for Change Advocacy – is a process of supporting and enabling people to : express their views and concerns, access information and services, defend and promote their rights and responsibilities. Global Digital Divide Videos – Through video hosting sites, you – describes the unequal distribution of can take a video and show it to the entire information and communication world (e.g. YouTube) technology across nations, commonly described as the “gap between information Sound, Music or Audio – If videos are haves and have-nots” too much for you, you can always record sounds. You can share your sound bites to the entire world (e.g. SoundCloud).  THE ROLE OF ICT IN THE RECENT HISTORY ICT AS MEDIUM FOR ADVOCACY 1. EDSA (PEOPLE POWER Change.org – is dubbed as the “world’s REVOLUTION) - A major protest that took platform for change” where anyone from place along EDSA from February 22 to 25, online community can create a petition and 1986 involving 2 million Filipinos from ask others to sign it. different sectors. - It gives access to more people by 2. EDSA DOS – Also known as 2001 allowing the online community to affix their EDSA Revolution – Happened during Jan digital signatures on a petition. 17-21, 2001– It was fueled after 11 prosecutors of - Its mission is to help people from then President Joseph Estrada walked out around the world create the change of the impeachment trial. As a result, the they want to see. Sample petitions raised people in EDSA grew over the course of a were: economic problems, criminal few days through text brigades. injustice, abuse of human rights, lack of education, environmental concerns, 3. Yolanda People Finder – Recent animal abuse, human health concerns and storms in the Philippines gave birth to the world hunger. People Finder database powered by Google. During typhoon Yolanda, the DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP People Finder was a vital tool for people across the globe to track the situation of Digital Citizenship – refers to the their relatives. This proved to be successful utilization of information technology (IT) in and is now adapted by more organizations order to engage in society, politics, and to help people track relatives during government. K. Mossberger, et al. define calamities. digital citizens as "those who use the Internet regularly and effectively". 4. Million People March – a series of protests that mainly took place in Luneta Park from Aug 22 to 26, 2013. There were DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP ELEMENTS: several demonstrations that happened around the key cities in the Philippines and 1. DIGITAL ACCESS - Full electronic some locations overseas. It was to participation in society. Technology condemn the misuse of the Priority users need to be aware that not Development Assistance Fund (PDAF). everyone has the same opportunities when it comes to - Though dubbed as the Million People technology. Working toward equal March, the number of total attendees was digital rights and supporting only around 400,000. The organizers and electronic access is the starting promoters of the protest used Facebook point of Digital Citizenship. and Change.org as their mediums. 2. DIGITAL COMMERCE - Electronic buying and selling of goods. Technology users need to  understand that a large share of society. Unethical use manifests market economy is being done itself in form of theft and/or crime. electronically. Legitimate and legal Ethical use manifests itself in the exchanges are occurring, but the form of abiding by the laws of buyer or seller needs to be aware society. Users need to understand of the issues associated with it. that stealing or causing damage to other people’s work, identity, or 3. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION - property online is a crime. Electronic exchange of information. One of the significant changes SOME PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC ACT within the digital revolution is a CONCERNING DIGITAL SAFETY: person’s ability to communicate with other people. In the 19th century, forms of communication ❑ RA 8293 Intellectual Property Code were limited. In the 21st century, of the Philippines communication options have ❑ RA 9995 Anti-photo & video exploded to offer a wide variety of Voyeurism Act choices (e.g., e-mail, cellular ❑ RA 9775 Anti-child Pornography phones, instant messaging). Act ❑ RA 8792 E-commerce Act of 2000 4. DIGITAL LITERACY - Process of ❑ RA 8484 Access Devices teaching and learning about Regulation Act technology and the use of technology. While schools have 7. DIGITAL RIGHTS & made great progress in the area of RESPONSIBILITIES - Those technology infusion, much remains freedoms extended to everyone in to be done. A renewed focus must a digital world. There are basic set be made on what technologies of rights extended to every digital must be taught as well as how it citizen. Digital citizens have the should be used. right to privacy, free speech, etc. Basic digital rights must be 5. DIGITAL ETTIQUETE - Electronic addressed, discussed, and standards of conduct or procedure. understood in the digital world. Technology users often see this area as one of the most pressing 8. DIGITAL HEALTH - Physical and problems when dealing with Digital psychological well-being in a digital Citizenship. We recognize technology world. Eye safety, inappropriate behavior when we repetitive stress syndrome, and see it, but before people use sound ergonomic practices are technology, they do not learn digital issues that need to be addressed in etiquette (i.e., appropriate a new technological world. conduct). 9. DIGITAL SECURITY - Electronic 6. DIGITAL LAW - Electronic precautions to guarantee safety. In responsibility for actions and any society, there are individuals deeds. Digital law deals with the who steal, deface, or disrupt other ethics of technology within a  people. The same is true for the 2.Purpose - This includes the reason why digital community. It is not enough the project / campaign is worth your sponsor’s time, effort and money. Example: - Under Young Focus Foundation, this project works to provide free and accessible education to children of all ages up to college, along with school sponsorship programs for the youth of Smokey Mountain. 3.Description - This includes all the necessary information about the project. It involves the website/s or page you are going to produce and the purpose of each and how they work in unison. Example: - It has become my mission to fundraise for to trust other members in the the Preschool in Smokey Mountain. community for our own safety. Through multiple efforts such as holding and performing at benefit concerts, Lesson 11. DEVELOPING ICT PROJECT auctioning off original artworks, creating FOR SOCIAL CHANGE social media movements and approaching different bodies and companies I hope to Concept Paper – It is a document used to make the Paraiso: Beginning’s Project a convince a panel of potential funders to success. help a product, program, or service become a reality. 4.Support - This contains the budget needed for the project, though some CONCEPT PAPER ELEMENTS concept papers do not specify any amount requested from the sponsor. 1.Introduction - This includes your mission and vision and a brief introduction Example: This project has set a goal to of your project / campaign. raise funds for the procurement and renovation of a 3-story building that would Example: serve as a Preschool for children aged 3-5 - Twelve million people call the capital city yrs. This would allow the number of of Manila in the Philippines, home. preschool aged students to grow from 80 Heartbreakingly, many who live here are to 300. being left far behind in abject poverty. Donate via bank donation. For donations in According to statistics: 4 million or 37% of the Philippines please use this bank the entire population are below the poverty information and make it payable to: Young line and live in heavily populated slums. Focus for Education & Development Bank: BPI (Bank of the Philippine Islands) Branch: Navotas Account no.: 4651-0036- Website Management - a website 58 BIC/SWIFT code: BOPIPHMM management platform is an integrated set of tools that allows teams to create, design, 5.Contact Information - This includes develop, launch, manage, administer, and information on how the group can be monitor website contents. contacted. A Web Content Management System Example: (WCMS) is a software Content - Young Focus works to give every Management System (CMS) specifically child the opportunity to better for web content. themselves and to have access to an education regardless of their It provides website authoring, family’s situation. (For more collaboration, and administration tools information on Young Focus visit: that help users with little knowledge of web www.youngfocus.org) programming languages or markup languages create and manage Your project/campaign must meet the website content. SMART criteria: EXAMPLES OF WEB MANAGEMENT S – Specific PLATFORMS: M – Measurable A – Attainable 1. WordPress - Is a free and open-source R – Realistic content management system (CMS) based T – Time-bounded on PHP and MySQL. PUBLISHING ICT PROJECT 2. Drupal - A free and open-source content- management framework written in DIFFERENT PLATFORMS TO UPLOAD PHP and distributed under the GNU ICT PROJECT: general public license. ❑ Social Media 3. Joomla - Is a free and open -source ❑ YouTube content management system (CMS) for publishing web content. Joomla is written. ❑ Change.org ❑ Blogs / CMS / Websites PRMOTION AND MONITORING ON ICT PROJECT WordPress - is a free and open-source content management systems based on Website Promotion – is the process of php and MySQL. increasing exposure of a website to bring in visitors. Various techniques such Search File Manager - is an uploading tool web Engine Optimization (SEO) and Web interface that allows you to manage all your Content Development are being used to files. There are many files manager increase website traffic. present now. (File Manager App, Google Drive, DropBox, etc.) To get more traffic and traction, you should not only be good in writing/designing, but also good in promotion.  2. AdWords (Google AdWords) - is an Here are several ways to gain traffic: advertising service by Google for businesses wanting to display ads on 1. Use Interactive Multimedia – By Google and its advertising network. integrating the use of Interactive Multimedia to your social media, e- 3. Reddit (/ˈrɛdɪt/) - is an American social mail, and etc. created in different news aggregation, web content rating, and channels and formats to gather discussion website. Registered members different kinds of audiences in submit content to the site such as links, text different ways. posts, and images, which are then voted up or down by other members. 2. Use Various Online Tools - create headlines grab in attention in 4. Facebook ads - are purchased on an email, twitter and Facebook post auction basis, where advertisers are for gathering more audiences in charged based on either clicks, other networks. impressions or actions. 3. Use Images - create images in FACEBOOK PAGE STATISTICS Pinterest, Instagram, SlideShare and YouTube what will catch the Overview – contains the summary of attention of viewers. statistics about your page. 4. Use blog - Use your blogs to Post Reach – gives you more insights on frequently connect with other which recent post reached the most people and build relationship and people. network. Organic Reach – your posts seen through 5. Collaborate Online - collaboration the page’s wall, shares by users, and with friends, influencers, readers newsfeed. will strengthen your network. Paid Reach – your posts seen through 6. Update – Always have a fresh paid ads. content and regularly update post, news, write ups, or images. Post Clicks – number of clicks done to your posts. TRACTION TOOLS FOR VALIDATION / Likes, Comments, and Shares – actual FEEDBACKS interaction done by your audience either though liking the post, commenting on it, or 1. LinkedIn - is a social networking site sharing it on their walls. designed specifically for the business community. The goal of the site is to allow Page Visits – contains data of the number registered members to establish and of times your page tabs are visited. document networks of people they know and trust professionally. People – contains statistics about your audience’s demographics (age, location, gender, language, and country). It also includes demographics about the people Check that any changes or addition you you have reached and engaged with. make will not affect the links and loading of images and pages. Make use of e-mail Demographics – It refers to the statistics feedback portion of your site to make you characterizing human population usually aware of the problems that visitors may divided by age, gender, income, location convey to you so that they will be resolve and language. quickly. Psychographics – is the study of personality, values, opinions, attitudes, interests, and lifestyles. Psychographic Segmentation – involves dividing your market into segments based upon different personality traits, values, attitudes, interests, and lifestyles of consumers. UPDATING CONTENT AND MAINTANING TRAFFIC 1. Update Contents Regularly – add fresh, new contents like write ups, pictures, videos, infographics, blogs, news articles, and ideas regularly. Aside from the reason that it will attract new visitors, search Lesson 1. Critical Approaches engines can recognize when you are being active, and act accordingly by visiting your Critical Approaches are different site more often too. perspectives we consider when looking at a piece of literature. 2. Update Links - regularly check links to They seek to give us answers to these other sites to make sure they are current questions, in addition to aiding us in and better if you have new links to add. You interpreting literature. can also utilize an RSS feed that will 1. What do we read? update subscriber each time you publish 2. Why do we read? fresh content to the website. 3. How do we read? 3. Reply To Inquiries - be active and reply READER-RESPONSE CRITICISM to your visitors on any inquiry, questions or asserts that a great deal of meaning in a comment that they may have, activity in text lies with how the reader responds to it. your site will increase more traffic and  Focuses on the act of visitors. reading and how it affects our perception of meaning 4. Maintaining Your Site - maintenance in a text (how we feel at the will ensure that your files and file directory beginning vs. the end) structures are up and running properly at  Deals more with the all times, and all your links are functional. process of creating  meaning and experiencing 2. The greatest literary texts are a text as we read. A text is “timeless” and “universal.” an experience, not an object. PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH:  The text is a living thing that  This approach focuses on themes, lives in the reader’s view of the world, moral imagination. statements, READER + READING SITUATION + author’s philosophy, etc. TEXT = MEANING THE PSYCHOLOGICAL/ PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH: 2 Important Ideas in Reader-Response 1. An individual reader’s interpretation views a text as a revelation of its author’s usually changes over time. mind and personality. It is based on the 2. Readers from different generations work of Sigmund Freud. and different time periods interpret  Also focuses on the hidden texts differently. motivations of literary Ultimately… How do YOU feel about what characters you have read? What do YOU think it  Looks at literary characters means? as a reflection of the writer SOCIOLOGICAL CRITICISM argues that FORMALIST APPROACH - This social contexts (the social environment) approach focuses on form. must be considered when analyzing a text.  Focuses on the values of a The analysis stresses items like symbols, society and how those images, and structure and how one part of views are reflected in a text the work relates to other parts and to the  Emphasizes the economic, whole. political, and cultural issues within literary texts - It emphasizes the form of a literary  Core Belief: Literature is a work to determine its meaning, reflection of its society. focusing on literary elements and how they work to create meaning. MARXIST CRITICISM emphasizes  Examines a text as economic and social conditions. It is based independent from its time on the political theory of Karl Marx and period, social setting, and Friedrich Engels. author’s background. A text  Concerned with is an independent entity. understanding the role of  Focuses on close readings power, politics, and money of texts and analysis of the in literary texts effects of literary elements and techniques on the text. Marxist Criticism examines literature to see how it reflects Two Major Principles of Formalism 1. The way in which dominant 1. A literary text exists independent of groups (typically, the any particular reader and, in a majority) exploit the sense, has a fixed meaning.  subordinate groups background into account when we study a (typically, the minority) text. 2. The way in which people become alienated from one Three Benefits: another through power, 1. Facts about an author’s experience money, and politics. can help a reader decide how to interpret a text. FEMINIST CRITICISM is concerned with 2. A reader can better appreciate a the role, position, and influence of women text by knowing a writer’s struggles in a literary text. or difficulties in creating that text.  Asserts that most 3. A reader can understand a writer’s “literature” throughout time preoccupation by studying the way has been written by men, they apply and modify their own life for men. experiences in their works.  Examines the way that the female consciousness is HISTORICAL APPROACH focuses on depicted by both male and connection of work to the historical period female writers. in which it was written;  This approach examines --literary historians attempt to connect the images of women and historical background of the work to concepts of the feminine in specific aspects of the work. myth and literature;  Uses the psychological, archetypal, and sociological NEW HISTORICIST APPROACH approaches; often focuses on female characters who 1. Provides background information necessary to understand how have been neglected in literary texts were perceived in their previous criticism. time.  Feminist critics attempt to 2. Shows how literary texts reflect correct or supplement what ideas and attitudes of the time in they regard as a predominantly male- which they were written.  New historicist critics often dominated critical compare the language in perspective. contemporary documents and literary texts to reveal cultural 4 Basic Principles of Feminist Criticism assumptions and values in the text. 1. Western civilization is patriarchal. 2. The concepts of gender are mainly ARCHETYPAL APPROACH – cultural ideas created by patriarchal societies.  This approach focuses on 3. Patriarchal ideals pervade connections to other literature, “literature.” mythological/biblical allusions, 4. Most “literature” through time has archetypal images, symbols, characters, and theme. been gender-biased. BIOGRAPHICAL CRITICISM argues that REMEMBER: we must take an author’s life and   We will never look at a text limited to arguments, conflict can be any of STRICTLY from one standpoint or struggle the main character faces. Within a another, ignoring all other views. short That is antithetical to what we are story, there may be only one central trying to do. struggle, or there may be many minor obstacles within a  We should always keep our focus dominant struggle. There are two ~ of on the text and use these critical conflict: approaches to clarify our o Internal - Struggle within one's self. understanding of a text and Character vs. Self - Struggles with own develop an interpretation of it. soul, physical limitations, choices, etc. o External - Struggle with a force outside Lesson 2. Elements of a Story one's self. Character vs. Character - Struggles 4 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A STORY: against other people. 1. PLOT Character vs. Nature - Struggles against 2. SETTING animals, weather, environment, etc. 3. CHARACTERS Character vs. Society - Struggles against 4. THEME ideas, practices, or customs of others. PLOT - How the author arranges 3) Climax - Turning point of the story. events to develop the basic idea; it is the sequence of events in a story Readers wonders what will happen next; or play. The plot is a planned, will the conflict be resolved logical series of events having a or not? beginning, middle, and end. The Consider the climax as a three-fold short story usually has one plot so phenomenon: it can be read in one sitting. Main character receives new information. Main character accepts this information The action that takes place in the (realizes it but does not necessarily agree story. It is a series of connected with it). happenings and their result. In Main character acts on this information order to have a result, we must (makes a choice that will determine have an initial event, or conflict. whether or not objective is met). 1) Exposition (introduction) - Beginning of 4) Falling action - Resolution begins; the story; characters, background, and events and complications start to fall into setting revealed. place. These are the events between