Cognitive Psychology 2nd Long Exam PDF

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCOGP TERM 1 – SIR ENGLAND CASTRO – MH 2:30-4:00 Subject to application of rules; MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS OF sequential representation...

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCOGP TERM 1 – SIR ENGLAND CASTRO – MH 2:30-4:00 Subject to application of rules; MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS OF sequential representation ○ (e.g., completeness, grammar, KNOWLEDGE context) TOPIC OVERVIEW MENTAL IMAGERY by-product of imagination A. MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS OF representations of: KNOWLEDGE ○ Sensations (mostly visual) a. Learning ○ Past experiences b. Knowledge Representation ○ Fantasies and made-up c. Metacognition scenarios A MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS A DUAL CODE THEORY PAVIO (1969, 1971) How knowledge is stored and represented in our minds through a mental picture, words, or Both pictorial (analog) and verbal abstract propositions (symbolic) codes are used for mental a) standard laboratory experiments representations but are processed b) neuropsychological studies differently Rapid sequences of pictures and COMMUNICATING KNOWLEDGE words are remembered differently E.g. Two apples are in the basket. Pictures are easily recalled in any order IMAGES VS WORDS Words are easily recalled in proper Both are used to represent ideas, some order more easily represent through images and Images and symbols each have a others in words Neither images or words limited capacity are full representations of reality ○ Verbal tasks interfere with other verbal tasks IMAGES ○ Visual imagery interferes with Analogous to reality even when incomplete other visual tasks Feature concrete and observable attributes ○ Visual imagery does not and features simultaneously no rules for interfere with verbal tasks scanning a picture ○ Some concepts are in images others are verbal WORDS Symbolic representation using arbitrary relationship ○ ⚬ representations are arbitrary: “apple”, “mansanas” and “ping guo” are different symbolic representations of apple PAGE 1 JULIEN MANLANGIT – BS PSYCHOLOGY - DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCOGP TERM 1 – SIR ENGLAND CASTRO – MH 2:30-4:00 EVIDENCE FOR THE DUAL CODE Dog (action) bread THEORY Both images and verbal statements are Count in multiples of 3’s from the number mentally representedin terms of their deep 30 while pointing to the blue balloons. meanings (as propositions) not as specific images (pictorial) or verbal statements September 10 is the deadline for the (words). submission of proposals for new degrees, subject to curriculum revisions for the When we experience images or words, Curriculum Committee Meeting. these are EPIPHENOMENA– secondary and September 12 on the other hand is the derivative phenomena that occur as a result deadline for submission for new equipment of more basic cognitive processes and major improvement. Propositional Formula : (relationship Count in 3’s from the number 30 while between objects), (subject element) (object reading the memo. element) EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FOR THE DUAL Predicate calculus CODE THEORY (proposition) ([subject element], 1 - ”Does a cat have claws?” [object element]) 2 - “Does a cat have a head”? “The child is feeding the chicken.” (feeding- action) [child, chicken ] When asked to have an image of a ○ Feeding - proposition cat, subjects responded more slowly ○ Child - subject to Question 1 than 2. ○ Chicken - object When not told to have an image, subjects responded more quickly to “The chicken is feeding in the child’s question 1. hands.” (in- spatial position) [chicken, hands] Attribute: “the child is wearing red boots” A PROPOSITIONAL THEORY Class membership: “this is a human Anderson & Bower (1973) child” “the human child wearing red boots How many sentences can we make to is feeding a chicken with her hands” describe the relationship of the dog and the bread? DUAL CODE PROPOSITIONAL Underneath words and images we have THEORY THEORY basic PROPOSITIONS Pictorial code Meaning of PROPOSITION - underlying meaning of + verbal code Relationships = conceptual relationships = mental Mental Ex. we can say representatio Representatio “The dog eats the bread” n ns “Ang aso ay kumakain ng tinapay” PAGE 2 JULIEN MANLANGIT – BS PSYCHOLOGY - DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCOGP TERM 1 – SIR ENGLAND CASTRO – MH 2:30-4:00 Definitions, characteristics, features Concrete & Abstract Contextual and dynamic Salient CATEGORIES WHAT DID IT PROVE? Group of concepts or items that Reed & Johnsen (1975) demonstrated that share common features visual images often lack sufficient details for Relatively stable direct comparisons of part-whole relationships. CATEGORIES It means that our visual images are not that NATURAL ABSTRACT AD HOC accurate, that we cannot call up a precise analogical mental image. Naturally Man-made/ spontaneous, occurring socially-con temporary and WHAT DOES THIS EXERCISE PROVE? structed highly specific Our mental images are not exact Usually categories representations of the stimuli biological-ba Serve a That verbal codes can override image sed function E.g. “Animals codes that can kill me but I want to DECLARATIVE & PROCEDURAL pet” “Things I KNOWLEDGE can write on” DECLARATIVE PROCEDURAL How to Categorize? A. Feature-Based Categories ‘What’ ‘How’ grouping depends on necessary Factual Steps & DEFINING FEATURES Information Processes exclusive and rigid e.g. wife - has 3 features Concepts & Implementati Categories ons Limitations of Feature-Based Theories Semantic Difficult to specify necessary features: Models ○ What is a game? What is a Schematic monster? Representatio ns Violation of defining features does not change the concept ○ Is it a watch if it does not tell time? A DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE Typicality effects CONCEPT ○ Why is an apple “more Fundamental units of ideas used in fruit-like” than a tomato? Why understanding the world PAGE 3 JULIEN MANLANGIT – BS PSYCHOLOGY - DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCOGP TERM 1 – SIR ENGLAND CASTRO – MH 2:30-4:00 is basketball “more of a sport” D. Feature-Based + Prototype than chess CORE - ‘must-have’ for the category + B. Prototype Categories PROTOTYPE - tend to be typical but not grouping based on CHARACTERISTIC necessary FEATURES or similarity to prominent E.g figures or ‘prototype’ Reptiles less exclusive Ecto-thermic Lay eggs Vertebrates, scaly ○ e.g. we put a new fruit beside + an apple and decide if it is also Bound to land Scary/intimidating a fruit e.g. a hero? what are the core A Prototype is the model from which characteristics and the prototypical the other instances are compared characteristics? (theoretical or concrete) E. Theory-Based Categorization CLASSICAL CONCEPTS Implicit theories and general ideas to Easily defined understand concepts Based on defining features Draws frompersonal experiences Arbitrary and used for labeling Views of a concept are more complex ○ E.g. bachelor and abstract FUZZY CONCEPTS Put into separate categories: Based on prototypes cupcake - ham Evolve naturally bacon - pancakes ○ e.g. game or death Apple pie - brownie “We use the word fruit to describe any part of a plant that has seeds, pulp, and skin. But B SEMANTIC NETWORKS MODEL our natural, fuzzy concept of fruit usually does not easily extend to tomatoes, pumpkins, and cucumbers” Mental representations are networks of information C. Exemplars use of multiple prototypes or typical Collins and Quillian’s Network Model representatives Knowledge is represented as NODES ○ e.g. lead in a movie; politicians in a hierarchical tree diagram. The connections between the nodes are labeled RELATIONSHIPS SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATIONS SCHEMA PAGE 4 JULIEN MANLANGIT – BS PSYCHOLOGY - DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCOGP TERM 1 – SIR ENGLAND CASTRO – MH 2:30-4:00 a mental framework for organizing PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE knowledge to create meaningful Classical & Operant Conditioning structures conditioning theories (e.g. fear of more task-oriented dogs, gambling behavior) models of the external world based Non-Associative Knowledge on past experience habituation encompass typical general information that can vary slightly Priming from one instance to another links within a knowledge network give rise to stereotypes E.g. LANGUAGE Andie’s class is having their annual end-of-the-year kindergarten presentation. The classes have been doing nothing for A structured system of communication the past two months but practice. Andie has a great costume (dressed as a bunch of using sounds or symbols that enables grapes). expression. To construct a mental representation of a Mom didn’t watch. What are your thoughts? situation that enables us to understand the situation and communicate about it. SCRIPTS Shows the order in which things COMMUNICATION occur process of exchanging information Less flexible than schemas through various mediums Default values for actors, props, etc. All human languages are Used as a guide for behavior Explain memory phenomena; understanding communication systems, but not all events communication systems are Lessens stress related to feelings of languages. uncertainty Draw inferences/ gap filing Characteristics of language phenomena Helps in communication B COMMUNICATIVE Language permits us to communicate with one or more people who share our language B ARBITRARILY SYMBOLIC Language creates an arbitrary relationship between a symbol and what it represents; PAGE 5 JULIEN MANLANGIT – BS PSYCHOLOGY - DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCOGP TERM 1 – SIR ENGLAND CASTRO – MH 2:30-4:00 tangible and non-tangible (e.g., idea, a Dynamic process, a relationship) ○ Language evolves; What are some new gen z terms? Two Principles of Word Meanings ○ Fransisco Balagtas’ Cai Selia / Kay Conventionality Selya ○ Meanings of words are determined “Cong pag saulang cong basahin sa isip by people’s agreement ang nan~gacaraang arao n~g pag-ibig, may mahahaguilap cayang natititic liban na cay Agreement Celiang namugad sa dibdib? ○ 2 different words, represent two Yaong Celiang laguing pinan~gan~ganiban baca things that are at least slightly macalimot sa pag-iibigan; ang iquinalubog different niyaring capalaran sa lubhang malalim na Regularly Structured caralitaan.” ○ Language has a structure; only particularly patterned Kung pagsaulan kong basahin sa isip ang arrangements of symbols have nangakaraang araw ng pag-ibig, may meaning, and different mahahagilap kayang natititik liban na kay Selyang arrangements yield different namugad sa dibdib? Yaong Selyang laging meanings pinanganganiban, baka makalimot sa pag-iibigan; Structured at Multiple Levels ang ikinalubog niring kapalaran sa lubhang ○ Structure of language cna be malalim na karalitaan. analyzed at more than one level; LANGUAGE & COGNITION B WORDS Does language shape thought or does thought shape language? Phonemes (smallest unit of speech sound; ‘ta’) Morphemes (smallest unit of meaning; A SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESIS recharge = re+charge; 2 morphemes) Phrases Linguistic Relativity - assertion that Sentences speakers of different languages have Discourses differing cognitive systems and that these different cognitive systems influence the Generative, Productive ways in which people think about the ○ Within the limits of a linguistic world. structure, language users can One’s language determines how one produce novel utterances. The perceives the world, organizes possibilities for creating new information, and thinks utterances are virtually limitless. PAGE 6 JULIEN MANLANGIT – BS PSYCHOLOGY - DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCOGP TERM 1 – SIR ENGLAND CASTRO – MH 2:30-4:00 Strong Interpretation A LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY STUDIES Thoughts and behavior are determined by language (linguistic determinism) People in every culture can be expected to be exposed to pretty Milder Interpretation much the same range of colors Thoughts and behavior are influenced by different languages name colors quite differently language ○ Berinmo speakers (NewGuinea) tend to combine Language affects perception. the colors we call green and (e.g. labels - mental representations) blue under one name—nol ○ Russian speaker sconsider Language affects memory light blue (goluboy) and dark (e.g. eye-witness testimony) blue (siniy) two different colors Why? Experiment on how language affects Sun’s UV rays causes people’s lenses memory (Loftus & Palmer, 1974): to yellow, which makes it harder to Participants viewed an accident and discriminate between green and asked to describe the speeds of the blue. The large sun exposure in areas cars before the accident near the equator could explain the ○ word indicating impact was relative scarcity of separate color varied across participants terms for blue and green in some (smashed, collided, bumped, languages in this area. It also could hit) be that color names are an evolutionary result of the most ○ When ‘smashed’ was used, the frequently occurring colors in the participants rated speed as environment of members of a significantly higher than when particular language group. any of the other words were used German vs. Spanish (stereotypical feminine and masculine descriptions ○ connotation of the word ○ “Key”(lallave)–golden,intricate,li smash thereby seems to bias tte,lovely participants to estimate a ○ “Key”(der higher speed Schluessel)–hard,heavy,jagged ○ Similarly, when participants Children who learn Mandarin Chinese were asked if they saw broken tend to use more verbs than nouns glass (after a week’s delay), the Children acquiring English or Italian participants who were tend to use more nouns than verbs questioned with the word (Tardif, 1996; Tardif, Shatz, & Naigles, smashed said “yes” much 1997). more frequently than did any of the other participants PAGE 7 JULIEN MANLANGIT – BS PSYCHOLOGY - DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCOGP TERM 1 – SIR ENGLAND CASTRO – MH 2:30-4:00 Athanasopoulos: English and German A RELATIVITY OR UNIVERSALITY speakers treat events differently English -> Specify tenses and actions in time universals—characteristic patterns across ○ “A man is walking” all languages of various cultures—and relativity German -> Specify outcomes through beginnings, middles, and ends Today, many psychologists believe in a ○ “A man leaves the house and synthesis: Language has some influence on walks to he store” thought but not nearly so extreme an influence as Sapir and Whorf believed. It is probably the case that language and Chinese language has one word to thought interact with each other describe a worldly, experienced, throughout the life span (Vygotsky, 1986). socially skilled person who is devoted to his family, and somewhat reserved : “shì gÈ” BILINGUALISM ○ “Hoffmanetal (1986) composed text passages in English and in Chinese describing various Bilingual ○ speaks two languages characters. They included the shì gÈ stereotype, without, of Simultaneous Bilingua course, specifically using the ○ learn two languages from birth term shì gÈ in the descriptions. The researchers then asked Sequential Bilingual participants who were fluent in ○ First learn one language and then both Chinese and English to another read the passages either in Chinese or in English. Then Additive Bilingual they rated various statements ○ second language without loss about the characters, in terms to the native language of the likelihood that the statements would be true of Subtractive the characters. Some of these ○ second that interferes with the statements involved a native language stereotype of a shì gÈ person.” Do bilinguals think differently from What are some Filipino terms that you monolinguals people who can speak only think have no equivalent to other one language? languages? Early research argued that learning two languages was harmful Problems with early research ○ Lower class bilinguals were compared to middle class monolinguals PAGE 8 JULIEN MANLANGIT – BS PSYCHOLOGY - DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCOGP TERM 1 – SIR ENGLAND CASTRO – MH 2:30-4:00 ○ IQ and achievement tests were Bilingualism: Single-System or Dual? usually in the monolinguist’s Single-system hypothesis language Two languages are represented in one system Bilinguals... acquire more expertise in their own Dual system hypothesis language Two languages are represented by are sensitive to subtle aspects of separate systems language perform better on tests of nonverbal Suppose a bilingual person has brain intelligence that require recognition damage in a particular part of the brain. of verbal patterns According to the dual-system hypothesis, the individual would show different degrees Factors Influencing Bilingualism Fluency of impairment in the two languages. The 1. Age single-system view would suggest roughly a. The earlier in life a second equal impairment in the two languages. language learned, the more fluent the speaker will become Bilingualism: Single-System or Dual? b. The mastery of native-like whether one or two systems are used pronunciation often seems to depends on when and how the depend on early acquisition, second language was learned but individual differences are (Peltola et al., 2012) great Balanced bilinguals (2 languages from birth) showed more 2. Bahrick & colleagues disagree interference than dominant a. Vocabulary and fluency is bilinguals (2nd language later) acquired just as well in older dominant bilinguals may use two participants linguistic systems balanced bilinguals may use only Recalling Linguistic Relativity... bilingual one, which potentially leads to individuals think about things somewhat interference between the two differently in one language as opposed to languages the other Bilingualism: Single-System or Dual? (Boroditsky) Point Southeast two languages seem to share some, American professors pointed in but not all, aspects of mental different directions representation 5-year-old Australian aboriginal girls Learning a second language is were always right beneficial, but probably most useful if Australian Aborigines use compass learning the second language is in an points environment in which the learning of the second language adds to rather than subtracts from the learning of the first language PAGE 9 JULIEN MANLANGIT – BS PSYCHOLOGY - DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCOGP TERM 1 – SIR ENGLAND CASTRO – MH 2:30-4:00 Neuroscience & Bilingualism many of the words we choose are a Learning a second language result of the dialect we use increases the gray matter in the left ○ examples in the Philippines? inferior parietal cortex (positively correlated with proficiency) Negative correlation: age of Sometimes, differing dialects areas acquisition and the density in the left signed different social statuses inferior parietal cortex: the higher the ○ Standard forms = higherstatus age of acquisition, the less the ○ Non standard forms = density. lowerstatus ○ This area the brain benefits from the learning of a second Linguicism (Zuidema, 2005) language and that the earlier View that one dialectic superior learning occurs, the better it is toanother may lead one to make both for brain density and for judgments about the speaker that overall proficiency are biased ○ stereotype based on dialect ○ judgments about people's intelligence, competence, A LANGUAGE MIXTURE AND morality based on the dialect= CHANGE ○ A person who uses non standard form maybe judged Pidgin tubeless educated or less When people of two different trustworthy than a person who language groups are in prolonged uses a more standard form contact with one another, the language users of the two groups Slips of the Tongue begin to share some vocabulary that inadvertent linguistic errors in what is superimposed onto each group’s we say language use Freudian psychoanalysts: Freudian No native speakers Creole slips ○ unconscious processing that Creole has psychological significance This mixture can develop into a (e.g. repressed emotions) distinct linguistic form (i.e. grammar ○ e.g. “I’m glad to beat you” rules) (instead of “I’m glad to meet ○ E.g. Chavacano (in you”) Zamboanga; Spanish based(+Tagalog, Bisaya, we have a mental plan for what we Ilonggo) taglish? are going to say plan could be disrupted when our Dialect mechanism for speech production a regional variety of a language does not cooperate with our distinguished by features such as cognitive vocabulary, syntax, and pronunciation PAGE JULIEN MANLANGIT – BS PSYCHOLOGY - DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY 10  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCOGP TERM 1 – SIR ENGLAND CASTRO – MH 2:30-4:00 errors result from intrusions by other Deletion of Sounds (e.g. thoughts or by stimuli in the “prossing” instead of “processing”) environment, such as background noise A LANGUAGE IN SOCIAL CONTEXT A VARIOUS KINDS OF SLIPS Knowing what to say, how to say it, and when to say it or around other Anticipation - speaker uses a language people (Bowen, 2001) element before it is appropriate in the study of discourse and conversational sentence because it corresponds to an skills element that will be needed later in the situational determinants of the use of utterance (e.g. “an inspiring expression,” (an language expiring expression)) Perseveration - speaker uses a language A PRAGMATIC SKILLS element that was appropriate earlier in the sentence but that is not appropriate later on Establish common ground (e.g. “We sat down to a bounteous - Introduce a topic in order for the beast”(“bounteous feast”)) listener to fully understand Substitution - speaker substitutes one Maintaining a topic language element for another (e.g. “after it - Or change topic appropriately Or is too late,” instead of “before it is too late.” interrupt politely Reversal - the speaker switches the positions of two language elements (e.g. Appropriate eye contact ”flutterby”) Not too much staring Not too much looking away Spoonerisms - the initial sounds of two words are reversed and make two entirely Distinguishing how to talk and behave different words (e.g.“You have hissed all my towards different communicative mystery lectures,” [missed all my history partners lectures] and “Easier for a camel to go - Informal With Others through the knee of an idol” [the eye of a - Formal with some needle]) - Responding to gestures and non-verbal aspects of languags Malapropism - one word is replaced by another that is similar in sound but different Characteristics of Successful in meaning (e.g., furniture dealers selling Conversations “naughty pine” instead of “knotty pine”) Cooperative Principle ○ Conversational Postulates Insertions of sounds (e.g., “mischievious” (Four Maxims of Successful instead of “mischievous” or “drownded” ○ Conversations (Grice, 1967) instead of “drowned”) PAGE 11 JULIEN MANLANGIT – BS PSYCHOLOGY - DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCOGP TERM 1 – SIR ENGLAND CASTRO – MH 2:30-4:00 Boys A 4 MAXIMS OF SUCCESSFUL ○ tell jokes, notice things around CONVERSATIONS the room, talk about finding games to play Maxim of Quantity ○ angles, eyes straight ahead contribution as informative as required but also appropriate Tannen has suggested that male–female differences in conversational style largely Maxim of Quality center on differing understandings of the contribution should be truthful; say what goals of conversation you believe (Jokes? Sarcasm?) What are the goals of males? females? Maxim of Relation contributions are relevant to the aims of Tannen, 1994 the conversation Men ⚬ world as a hierarchical social order Maxim of Manner ⚬ to negotiate for the upper hand, to avoid obscure expressions, vague preserve independence, to avoid utterances, and purposeful obfuscation of failure your point Women to give support and confirmation to A SEX DIFFERENCES IN LANGUAGE others,and reach Differences between what men and consensus through communication women talk about Conversations between men and women are sometimes regarded as A NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF cross-cultural communication LANGUAGE (Tannen, 1994) Young girls and boys learn conversational communication in Five brain regions essentially separate cultural 1. ⚬ ventral temporal lobes (middle and environments through their inferior temporal,anterior same-sex friendships fusiform,and anterior As men and women, we then carry parahippocampal gyri) over the conversational styles we 2. Angulargyrus have learned in childhood into our 3. anterior aspect(pars orbitalis) of the adult conversations. inferior frontal gyrus 4. dorsal prefrontal cortex 5. posterior cingulate gyrus Tannen, 1994 Girls The activation of these areas takes ○ tend to talk about one topic place mostly in the left hemisphere, ○ talk face to face although there is some activation in the right hemisphere PAGE JULIEN MANLANGIT – BS PSYCHOLOGY - DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY 12  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCOGP TERM 1 – SIR ENGLAND CASTRO – MH 2:30-4:00 RH is suspected that it does not play social behavior, language, and a significant role in word recognition cognition Surgeons sometimes conduct brain Children with autism show surgery while patients are awake to abnormalities in many areas of the map the language pathways and try brain (the frontal and parietal lobes, to preserve the language capabilities the cerebellum, brainstem, corpus of their patients after surgery (Duffau callosum, basal ganglia, amygdala, et al., 2008) and hippocampus) About half of children with autism fail to develop functional speech ○ Echolalia A APHASIA ○ People with autism also may Wernicke’s Aphasia have problems with the damage to Wernicke’s area of the brain semantic encoding of impairment in the understanding of language spoken words and sentences; production of sentences that have the basic structure of the language spoken but that make no sense. IN CONCLUSION.. “Yeah, that was the pumpkin furthest from Language use interacts with, but does my thoughts”; “the scroolish prastimer ate not completely determine, the nature of my spanstakes” thought ○ Supporting and encouraging Social interactions influence the ways in nonlanguage communication which language is used and comprehended in discourse and reading Broca’s Aphasia damage to Broca’s area of the brain production of grammatical speech at the same time that verbal comprehension A2 METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE ability is largely preserved speech is agrammatical rather than grammatical verbal comprehension is largely preserved Virus condition: participants tended ⚬ “Stroke...Sunday...arm,talking—bad” to suggest approaching the problem gist of the intended sentence is by investigating the roots of the high maintained, but expression of it is badly crime rates and then treating the distorted. Broca’s area is important for problems (like poverty) speech Beast conditions: suggested solutions were more direct (like catching and imprisoning the criminals) Influences societal things; US elections happened because of the A AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER languages used Developmental disorder characterized by abnormalities in PAGE JULIEN MANLANGIT – BS PSYCHOLOGY - DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY 13