Psychology Revision Notes PDF

**SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY** **Influence**\ --Obedience to authority\ --Influence from one's peers **MILGRAM** study was aim to \'obedience that is willingly assumed in the absence of threat of any sort, obedience that is maintained through the simple repetition by authority that it has the right to exer...

**SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY** **Influence**\ --Obedience to authority\ --Influence from one's peers **MILGRAM** study was aim to \'obedience that is willingly assumed in the absence of threat of any sort, obedience that is maintained through the simple repetition by authority that it has the right to exercise control over the person\'. **Experimental procedure**\ Advertised about learning and memory Allocated to roles of teacher or learner Fixed: participants always teacher (learner\ a stooge) Teacher to punish when learner makes\ error: Electric shocks **Reicher et al: 'Engaged followership'**\ Behaviour depends on experimenter\'s\ ability to convince participants they were\ contributing to a progressive enterprise Implies willingness to perform unpleasant\ tasks depends on authority making these\ tasks seem virtuous rather than vicious **SOCIAL INFLUENCE** Socially shared ways of looking at world\ -- Not reducible to individuals in group\ -- Prescriptive Group processes involve conformity to\ social norm Social influence relates to the processes\ whereby norms form, maintain, or change **Sherif (1935)**\ Looked at influence processes\ in terms of conformity to norms\ -- Group norms emerge through interaction\ -- A shared way of ordering the world Looked at how individuals\' judgements\ change because of exposure to other's\ judgements **Sherif's conclusions**\ Judgements represent conformity to group norm Product of information-sharing Provides framework for interpretation of reality Unaware of being influenced 'Internalised\'\ -- continued to use it even when alone Associated with group as a whole\ -- in some studies changed the members of group one at\ a time and found group norm continued **Informational Influence**\ (Assumed to occur in Sherif\'s study) Reflects need for information about reality Precondition?\ -- subjective uncertainty / lack of confidence\ i. difficulty of directly testing reality leads to uncertainty\ ii. leads to dependence on others for valid information\ iii. conformity to others perceived to provide evidence\ about reality Private acceptance **Normative influence**\ (Assumed to occur in Asch study) Mediated by desire to be liked and accepted\ -- Individual \'goes along\' to \'get along' (e.g., to avoid\ punishment / rejection) Occurs when group has rewards\ -- i. the power of others to reward/punish creates need\ for approval and fear of being different.\ -- ii. therefore, under conditions of surveillance....\ -- iii. one will tend to comply with their expectations Public compliance (not private acceptance) **DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY** Introduction to Developmental Psychology: The study of how and why biological, physical, cognitive, emotional and social abilities develop throughout childhood. **Infant development -- before/after birth**\ Begins when children are in utero. Gestation period: roughly 38-40 weeks (9 months). - By birth, infants' brains are similar in structure to an adult brain but only about a quarter of the size. - At birth the brain's neurons are not fully myelinated or connected. - Damage can occur to an infant's brain before it is even born. **Teratogen:** Substances which cause atypical development for the child if they are\ exposed to them in utero. - If children are exposed during pregnancy, teratogens have an adverse effect on development. - air pollution leads to genetic mutation in newborns - exposure to PVC elements can shorten pregnancy, leading to early delivery **Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD)** - If a baby is exposed to alcohol in the womb, they can experience physical, mental and behavioural impairments. **Cognitive and behavioural impairments of FASD**\  Infancy: Longer reaction times\  Pre-schoolers: Decreased attention, hyperactivity\  Childhood: Learning problems, memory deficits\  Adulthood: Impaired problem solving and higher rates of substance\ dependence. **The history of studying development** **Formal operational (12 years -- adult)** **Concrete operational (7-12 years)** **Pre-operational (2-6 years)** **Sensorimotor (0-2 years)** **From 0 - 2 years: sensorimotor stage** Infants can sense things and can move their bodies, but there is little cognition between the two. One key cognitive ability children do not grasp in the sensorimotor stage is object permanence. Object permanence: the idea that things exist in the world, even when we cannot perceive them. **perseverative reaching** usually until they are 10-12 months old.\ **Perseveration**: when infants persist with a response, even when this response is\ no longer appropriate, Piaget argued that this was because infants did not understand **object**\ **permanence** (i.e. the same object can be put in different locations). **From 2 -- 7 years: pre-operational stage** At this stage, children are still displaying egocentrism. **Egocentrism:** an inability for children to see/understand things from another person's point of view. Egocentrism ≠ selfishness! **Egocentrism:** A cognitive inability to understand how things appear to other people. **Selfishness:** Attitude of always wanting things your own way. In the pre-operational stage children still experience egocentrism and view\ objects from their perspective.\ Children are biased by their perceptions and cannot use "operations".\ Operation: a set of logical mental rules that can be applied to solve a problem At the pre-operational stage, children do not yet use operations, and so fail when\ judging things like quantity, volume, mass, and perspective because they are biased by\ the ways things look **From 7 -- 12 years: concrete operational stage** Children begin to be able to solve problems and perform operations, provided\ those problems are concrete (i.e. real, tangible in some way) **Beyond 12 years: formal operational stage** Now children perform operations in systematic, rigorous ways, and employ the\ use of hypothetical situations. It is at this stage that children learn how to conduct experiments. Piaget argued that young children are incapable of the systematic reasoning required for scientific enquiry. Children can think of hypothetical scenarios and use them to imagine ways to\ solve problems. Big difference with the formal operational stage = the WAY you solve problems\ has changed: Children no longer need to focus on visible problems and, instead, can go\ beyond what they see (scientific reasoning in abstract problems) **Piaget was a constructivist. Constructivism** -- a child does not blindly absorb information from the world but actively constructs their understanding of the world. **BIOPSYCHOLOGY -** Biological psychology Psychology is the state of mind. **Neuroscience:** is the scientific study of the nervous system. Biological psychology can be viewed as a bridge between psychology and neuroscience aim to discover how biological fundamentals produce psychological\ phenomena such as learning, memory, emotion, and perception. Gall (1758-1828) founded **Phrenology:** the idea that personality and abilities are revealed by the bumps on the skull **Coma**\ no signs of wakefulness or awareness of self or environment eyes closed and no response to commands. **Vegetative state**\ awake but unaware of self or environment can open eyes, demonstrate sleep-wake cycles and basic reflexes cannot respond to commands. **Locked-in syndrome**\ damage to the brainstem awake and aware but unable to respond because paralysed and unable to speak only able to communicate via eye movements. **BIOPSYCHOLOGY -** Biological psychology 2 Frontal lobe - Motor activity, speech, planning impulse control Parietal lobe -- Integrating sensory information, spatial tasks Temporal lobe -- Memory, emotion auditory perception Occipital lobe - Visual perception  **Corpus callosum**...connects the two hemispheres **Basal ganglia (in yellow)** are a collective term which includes Involved in the control of movement:\ -Caudate nucleus\ -Putamen -Globus pallidus\ **Emotional responses:** The polygraph measures changes in emotional arousal, which supposedly reflect lying versus truthfulness:\ -Galvanic Skin Response\ -Heart Rate\ -Blood Pressure **Emotion: the case of Phineas Gage**\ **Harlow (1848)**\ Accident blew a metal rod in through left cheek and out through upper skull. Gage survived but was not able to return to his job. **Before accident:** well-balanced, efficient, respectful\ **After accident:** fitful, irreverent, impatient **Damage:** frontal lobe (orbitofrontal cortex) **Biological psychology of emotion** **Cortex:** inhibition of emotions directing emotions appropriately.\ **Sub-cortical structures:** production of emotional responses collectively known as the Limbic System. **Amygdala involvement in emotion** **Amygdala:** plays an important role in fear conditioning\ Amygdala damage can:\  create problems with recognition\ of facial expressions of fear\  block fear conditioning\  create lack of fear **BIOPSYCHOLOGY -** Biological psychology 3 **Neuron** - a nerve cell in the brain **Understanding the neuron...** **Cell body**\ contains cell nucleus **Dendrites**\ "tree-like" structures\ receive information from other neurons **Axon**\ long fibre\ sends signals towards other neurons **Axon terminals**\ synaptic sites\ end close to other neurons **MYELINATION:** speeds action potential, myelination continues into adolescence. **Neural communication -** signal transfer -pre-synaptic neuron -post-synaptic neuron **Chemical transmission:** across the synaptic cleft (space) **Major Neurotransmitters** **GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid)**\ inhibition Huntington's disease **Acetylcholine (ACh)**\ memory Alzheimer's disease\ muscular movement convulsions **Serotonin**\ mood, sleep, eating depression\ obsessive-compulsive disorder **Dopamine (DA)**\ voluntary movement Parkinson's disease\ pleasure schizophrenia **Endorphin**\ neuromodulator insensitivity or oversensitivity\ to pain **The Dopamine (DA) system** Cell bodies of neurons for DA system are in two midbrain nuclei\ Substantia nigra (SN)\ Ventral tegmental area (VTA) **DA neurons project along:** Nigrostriatal pathway\ SN → Dorsal striatum Mesocortical pathway\ VTA →pre-frontal cortex Mesolimbic pathway\ VTA → nucleus accumbens **DRUG ACTION --** psychoactive drugs Most drug affect synaptic transmission **Agonist:** a drug that facilitates the action. **Antagonist:** a drug that reduces the action neurotransmitter. **PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS** **Depressants:** suppress bodily processes \- alcohol \- Valium **Opiates:** analgesic or pain relievers \- morphine \- heroin **Stimulants:** increase bodily processes \- methamphetamine \- cocaine **Hallucinogens:** produce sensory or perceptual distortions \- LSD \- cannabis **Physical dependence --** tolerance Effects of drug will diminish with repeated use. Decreased responsiveness at the site of action\ fewer receptors\ decreased efficiency of binding at receptors\ receptors less responsive Body's attempt to return to homeostasis Increased amounts of drug must be taken to elicit the same effects **PERCEPTION & COGNITION** **Lecture 1: Sensation, Perception &**\ **Cognition.** **Sensation & Perception** **Stimulus**: Any passing source of physical energy\ (that produces a response in a sense organ) **Sensation**: Reception of the physical energy in\ the sense organ **Perception**: Sorting out, interpretation, analysis\ and integration of stimuli; carried out by the\ sense organs and brain. Stimulus energy: light, sound, smell, etc. Sensory receptors: eyes, ears, nose, etc. Neural impulse Brain: visual, auditory, olfactory areas Sense organ: eye, ear, tongue, nose, skin, ear (inner ear). **BRAIN & PERCEPTION** Different area of the brain is responsible for processing different senses. Even within one area (e.g, visual cortex), different subareas function for different purposes. **VISUAL PERCEPTION:** Human visual system can process only a certain range of wavelengths. **STRUCTURE OF THE EYE** **Retina**: a layer of photoreceptor cells **The structure of retina**: **Cones**: sensitive to colours;\ used under light **Rods**: used in dim light; black-\ and-white perception **Colour Perception: Cones** Activity of a single cone (type) is not sufficient to identify colour. Colour perception involves comparison in activity between the three cone types. **Fovea** (**fovea centralis**): a small pit in the retina; provides\ the most acuity in vision. **Colour Constancy**: perceiving objects as having consistent colour, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the objects. **Gestalt**\ 'Gestalt': Organised whole\ Gestalt psychologists (early 20th century) emphasised our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.\ Perception is not just\ the sum of all parts. **Perception** = processing of information\ from senses\ **Cognition** = elaboration of information sensation \-\--\> perception \-\--\> cognition\ bottom-up (stimulus-driven) top-down (knowledge-driven) **Perceiving Depth**\ We can perceive the world as 3D (dimensional) and\ perceive the distance of objects (e.g., one object closer\ than another). = Depth Perception\ We live in a 3D world, but a retinal image is 2D.\ Then we need to construct a 3D world from a 2D retinal\ image.\ An intrinsically difficult, complex task **Depth Perception** Recovering size and depth from a 2D retinal image cannot be explained by sensation alone.\ Requires internal cognitive processing to recover perception.\ One important mechanism for depth perception is to use such top-down cues based on our\ knowledge and assumptions about the world: **Size Constancy** Size consistency: Our understanding of object size: things don't tend to change in physical size.\ Another type of knowledge/understanding of world to aid perception (cf. colour constancy).\ It can be used as a cue for depth perception **Visual illusion** Ponzo illusion: Depth cues (size constancy) can cause (physical) size illusions:  WEEK 7 **Perception & Cognition -** Face Perception & Recognition **Our Preference for Faces** **Importance of Faces** **Face Recognition Process** **Bruce & Young (1986) Model** **Prosopagnosia (Face Blindness)** **Perception & Cognition - Embodied Cognition** **STIMULUS \-\--\> Sensation perception cognition \-\--\> response** **Traditional vs. Embodied Cognition** - Traditional: Cognition involves mental representations stored away from sensory/motor regions. - Embodied: Cognition is integrated with sensory and motor systems, involving mental simulation of perception and action. **Predictions** If we activate motor aspects of representations then this should prime memories of objects that involve this action.\ body-mind effects (body affecting mind)\ If we activate sensory aspects of representations of an object then this should prime actions associated with that object.\ mind-body effects (mind affecting body) **Core Concepts of Embodied Cognition** - Sensory and motor systems influence cognition (e.g., thinking, seeing, or touching a hammer activates overlapping brain regions). - Activation of one aspect (e.g., reading \"CAT\") can prime related sensory or motor memories. **Mind-Body Effects** - Actions prime object recognition (Witt & Brockmore, 2012; Tucker & Ellis, 2004). - Observing actions enhances recognition of associated objects (Helbig et al., 2010).  **ACTION OBSERVATION** - **Congruent Condition**: When a stimulus or task aligns with what we expect, leading to faster and easier processing due to less cognitive interference. - Example: Reading the word \"CAT\" while looking at a picture of a cat. - **Incongruent Condition**: When a stimulus or task doesn't align with expectations, creating cognitive conflict that requires extra effort to resolve. o Example: Reading the word \"DOG\" while looking at a picture of a cat. **Real-Life Implications** - Studies show perception/cognition is influenced by physical conditions (e.g., hill steepness perceived as steeper with a backpack). **Memory & Cognition - Reconstructive Memory** **Reconstructive Memory** - Memory involves construction, affected by inferences during encoding, retrieval perspectives, and subsequent information. **Attention & Perception** - **Inattentional Blindness**: Failure to notice visible stimuli due to focus on a task (Simons & Chabris, 1999). - **Weapon Focus**: Eyewitness memory prioritizes crucial details (e.g., a gun) over peripheral ones (Loftus et al., 1987). Selective Attention: Influence of the viewer's task (and the task demands)\ override saliency/visibility of a stimulus **Episodic vs. Semantic Memory** - **Episodic**: remembering coherent episodes/events in the context,\ stored with \'tags\' relating to time and place, Events linked to time/place (e.g., \"mental time travel\"). - **Semantic**: General conceptual knowledge, stored without reference to time or place of acquisition\ remembering facts; a mental thesaurus. **Classic Studies** - **DRM Paradigm**: Lists induce false memories tied to an unpresented critical word (Roediger & McDermott, 1995). - **Bartlett (1932)**: Memory is influenced by meaning and schemas, shown in \"War of the Ghosts\" story recall. **Schemas** A schema is a chunk of knowledge about the world, events, people,\ actions, etc.\ The importance of Schemas\ -- A mental framework\ -- An organised pattern of thought Schemas not only used when things are difficult to comprehend:\ Mary heard the ice-cream van coming\ She remembered the pocket money\ She rushed into the house - Organize knowledge and influence encoding/retrieval. - Example: Dinner party schema helps recall details typical of such events. **Memory & Cognition - Reconstructive (Constructive) Memory** **Reconstructive Memory** - Memory is reconstructive, influenced by: - Inferences during encoding. - Information received post-event. - Perspective during retrieval. - General knowledge, expectations, and assumptions. Schema effect (Bartlett, 1932): remembering what you expect to see; memory distortions caused by influence of expectations. **Schemas** - **Role of Schemas**: - Organize knowledge and influence memory recall. - Can enhance or distort memory based on expectations. - **Research Examples**: - **Bransford & Johnson (1972)**: Abstract passage made clearer with context (e.g., \"doing laundry\"). - **Brewer & Treyens (1981)**: Office schema experiment highlighted better recall of schema-consistent items and false recognition of expected items. - **Tuckey & Brewer (2003)**: Bank robbery study revealed schema-driven recall and assumptions in ambiguous situations. **Effects During Encoding** - **Anxiety and Stress**: - Mixed findings on how stress affects memory. - Real-life studies (e.g., Yuille & Cutshall, 1986) suggest high-stress scenarios impair certain memory aspects. - Biological studies (e.g., Schwabe & Wolf, 2010) indicate stress hampers word-list learning. - **Reduced Attention**: - Limited attention at encoding leads to weaker memory formation (Hyman et al., 2010). **Post-Event Information** - **Misinformation and Suggestibility**: - **Loftus & Palmer (1974)**: Wording changes (\"smashed\" vs. \"hit\") influenced participants\' recall of broken glass in a car accident scenario. - **Loftus & Zanni (1975)**: Definite vs. indefinite article usage (\"the\" vs. \"a\") impacted memory reports. - **Lost in the Mall (Loftus & Pickrell, 1995)**: Demonstrated false memory creation through suggestive questioning. **Children as Eyewitnesses** - Tend to be highly suggestible due to: - Social compliance. - Limited cognitive ability. To help overcome these limitations, interviewers must avoid bias,\ context could be reinstated where possible, and children should be\ allowed to produce drawings. - **Mitigating Errors**: - Neutral questioning and context reinstatement help improve recall. - Repeated testing can enhance memory accuracy but also susceptibility to misinformation. **Applied Findings** - **Retention Intervals**: - Effects of schema-driven recall and misinformation increase over time. - Misleading early tests can exacerbate false memories (Chan & LaPaglia, 2011). - **False Memory Effects**: - Memories aren\'t always overwritten; misinformation often becomes more accessible. **Memory and Cognition -- Lecture 3**  **Reconstructive Memory:** - Memory is not an exact replica of events but is reconstructed based on inferences, general knowledge, and expectations. - Factors influencing memory: encoding, retrieval, and post-event information.  **Familiarity vs. Recollection:** - **Familiarity:** Fast, automatic recognition without detailed recollection. - **Recollection:** Slower, more effortful recall with specific details.  **Misattribution & Transference:** - **Source misattribution:** Confusing the origin of a memory (real vs. imagined). tendency of Eyewitnesses to misidentify\ an innocent face (or property) based on familiarity. - **Unconscious transference:** Mistakenly attributing a familiar face to the wrong context (e.g., eyewitness misidentification).  **Eyewitness Testimony:** - Eyewitness identification is prone to errors, improved by warnings about possible absence of the culprit. - Sequential lineups (seeing suspects one at a time) reduce errors. - Confidence does not always correlate with accuracy in identification.  **Cognitive Interview Techniques:** - Encourage witnesses to recall the context of events and report all details, even fragmented ones. - Change the order of recall and perspective to access different memory aspects. **Evolution & Human Behaviour 1** **Mechanisms of Evolution:** - **Natural Selection:** Survival of the fittest based on advantageous traits. - **Sexual Selection:** Traits that enhance mating success. - **Genetic Drift, Mutation, and Gene Flow:** Additional factors driving evolutionary change. Genes influence what we look like on the outside and how we work on the inside. They contain the information our bodies need to make proteins. Proteins for the structure of our bodies and play an important role in all the processes that keep us alive. Gregor Mendel (1865): organisms contain two versions of each gene (one from each parent (alleles). DNA is replicated and passed on to offspring.\ genotype\ phenotype Where does genetic variation come from?\ sexual reproduction\ mutation\ genetic drift\ gene flow **Human Evolution Timeline:** - Homo sapiens emerged around 200,000 years ago. - Major revolutions: Cognitive (\~70,000 years ago), Agricultural (\~12,000 years ago), Industrial (\~200 years ago), Digital (\~20 years ago). **Natural Selection's Pillars:** - **Competition:** Struggle for limited resources. - **Variation:** Differences in traits among individuals. - **Heritability:** Traits passed on to offspring. **Sexual Dimorphism and Selection:** - Differences in male and female traits due to evolutionary pressures like mate choice and competition. **THE SELFISH GENE** gene = unit of selection in biological evolution  not individual (person)\  not the trait/characteristic (e.g. beak) Genes are self-interested! biological fitness = \# of copies of genes\ passed on to future\ generation **INTERsexual selection**\  preferential mate choice\  "female choice"\  gametic investment **INTRAsexual selection**\  status & hierarchy\  physical combat\  access to resources **Evolution & Human Behaviour 2 (Evolutionary Psychology)** Evolutionary Psychology is:\ an approach that seeks to understand the design of the human mind\ a way of thinking that can be applied to any domain of psychology **Principles of Evolutionary Psychology (EP):** - The brain is an information-processing system shaped by natural selection. - Neural circuits evolved to solve specific adaptive problems faced by early humans. - Our modern minds are adapted for life in ancient environments, leading to potential mismatches with modern life. **Mismatch Between Past and Present:** - **Fear:** More instinctive fear of ancient threats (snakes) than modern threats (guns). - **Diet:** Cravings for sugar and fat developed in an environment where such resources were scarce, now contributing to modern health issues. **Comparative Evolutionary Psychology:** - Examines human traits by comparing them with those in other species. - Studies developmental stages and cross-cultural variations to distinguish between innate and learned behaviours. The comparative approach:\ combines three\ methodological perspectives 1\. Developmental: The earlier the emergence, the less it is likely to be dependent on socio-cultural learning to develop.\ The later the emergence, the more it is likely to be dependent on socio-cultural learning to develop. 2\. Phylogenetic: Do other species with similar habitats or social structures also exhibit this trait?\ Is this trait unique to humans? 3\. Cross-cultural: The similar the developmental trajectory of a trait, the less it is likely to be dependent on socio-cultural learning to develop.\ The more different the developmental trajectory of a trait, the more it is likely to be dependent on socio-cultural learning to develop. **Criticisms of Evolutionary Psychology:** - Difficulty in empirically testing backward inferences (e.g., justifying traits by historical needs). - Concerns about deterministic explanations and potential misuse (e.g., eugenics). **WEEK 10 last slide**