Cognitive Psychology Midterm Topics PDF

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JULIANA SERRANO AY 2024 – 2025 | PSYCH314 MIDTERM TOPICS STIMULUS RESPONSE THEORIES The stimulus – response connections tend to grow...

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JULIANA SERRANO AY 2024 – 2025 | PSYCH314 MIDTERM TOPICS STIMULUS RESPONSE THEORIES The stimulus – response connections tend to grow weaker with elapsed time. Contiguity theory implies that forgetting is a EDWIN RAY GUTHRIE’S CONTIGUITY THEORY form of retroactive or associative inhibition. LAW OF CONTIGUITY ASSOCIATIVE INHIBITION States that a combination of stimuli which has Occurs when one habit prevents another due to accompanied a movement will on its recurrence some stronger stimuli. tend to be followed by that movement. Due to interference because the All learning is based on a stimulus – response Forgetting stimuli have become associated association. Movements are small stimulus – with new responses. response combinations. Guthrie believed that a person can use These movements make up an ‘act.’ A learned sidetracking to change previous conditioning. behavior is a series of movements. It takes time for This involves discovering the initial cues for the the movements to develop into an act. habit and associating other behavior with those He also believed that learning is incremental. Some cues. behavior involves repetition of movements and what are learned are movements, not behaviors. SIDETRACKING Guthrie stated that each movement produces Causes the internal associations to beak up. stimuli and the stimuli become conditioned. Every It is easier to sidetrack than to break a habit. motion serves as a stimulus to many sense organs OTHER METHODS TO BREAK HABITS: in muscles, tendons, and joints. Stimuli which are acting at the time of a response A change in behavior-altered become conditioners of that response. Movement – chemical states in the muscle and produces stimuli have become conditioners of the blood stream. succession of movements. It has the effect of decreasing Fatigue Habit Movements that form a series. the conditioned response. The stimulus conditions the other Movements are often classified as forms of responses thus inhibiting the conditioning or association. Some behavior response. involves the repetition of movements, so that This method involves conditioning can occur long after the original presenting cues at such low stimulus. levels that the response does ONE TRIAL LEARNING Threshold not occur. The stimulus is then increased Guthrie rejected the ‘law of frequency’ thus raising the response He believed in one – trial learning which states threshold. that a stimulus pattern gains its full associative strength on the occasion of its first pairing with The incompatible stimulus a response. method involves presenting the He did not believe that learning is dependent on stimulus for the behavior we Incompatible reinforcement. want to remove when other response aspects of the situation will Anything that alters the stimulus Reinforcement prevent the response from situation for the learner. occurring. He rejected reinforcement because it occurs after Excitement facilitates learning and also the the association between the stimulus and the stereotyping of a habit. response of establishing new stimuli as cues for It is the conflict responsible for the excitement that some specified response. breaks up the old habit. RECENCY PRINCIPLE Breaking up a habit involves finding the cues Plays an integral role in the learning process. that initiate the action and practicing another response to such cues. This principle states that which was done last in the presence of a set of stimuli will be that which GUTHRIE’S EXPERIMENT is done when the stimulus combination occurs Guthrie did a collaborative study with George P. again. Horton which involved the stereotyped behavior of He believed that it is the time relation between the cats in the puzzle box. substitute stimulus and the response that count. Horton set up the trials and supervised the Greater when the association is photography, while Guthrie took notes in shorthand. novel. Associative GUTHRIE – HORTON EXPERIMENT When two association are strength present with the same cue, the Illustrated the associative theory of learning. more recent will prevail. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY | PSYCH314 | MIDTERM TOPICS PAGE 1 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JULIANA SERRANO AY 2024 – 2025 | PSYCH314 MIDTERM TOPICS They used a glass panelled box which allowed cannot produce the old them to photograph the cats’ movements. response, and a new response The box was constructed so that the cat could open will be elicited or the animal with the door by touching a post. do nothing. It took approximately 15 minutes for the cat to touch Introduce a very mild version of the post. the stimulus (below threshold The second time, the cat had the tendency to level). Gradually increase the duplicate its first behavior. The photographs Threshold intensity of the stimulus until showed that the cats repeated the same sequence Method the full stimulus can be of movements associated with their previous tolerated without the escape from the box – example of stereotyped undesirable response being behavior. elicited. The Guthrie – Horton experiment allows us to A place the animal in a situation assume than an animal learns on association Incompatible in which it cannot produce the between a stimulus and a behavioral act after Stimuli Method undesirable response when the only one experience. stimulus is presented. Guthrie states that numerous trials are not duplications, but learning to respond to similar stimulus complexes. Only after Guthrie and B.F. SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING Horton form several associations can the behavioral criterion of learning can be achieved. OPERANT CONDITIONING PRINCIPLES OF CONDITIONING Skinner expanded Watson’s basic stimulus – response model. 1. In order for conditioning to occur, the organism must actively respond (i.e., do things). Skinner developed a more comprehensive view of 2. Since learning involves the conditioning of specific conditioning. movements, instruction must present very specific His model was based on the premise that tasks. effective language behavior consists of 3. Exposure to many variations in stimulus patterns is producing responses (behaviors) to the correct desirable in order to produce a generalized stimuli (situation). response. When a response is followed by a reinforcer 4. The last response in a learning situation should be (reward) then it is conditioned to occur again. correct is the one will be associated. Thus, operant conditioning describes the effects of the consequences of a particular behavior. ELEMENTS OF GUTHRIE’S CONTIGUITY THEORY Core ideas of operant conditioning: Guthrie’s theory summarized one main law that the  Reinforcement stimulus or combination of stimuli that led to a  Punishment response will lead to that response again when repeated. He believed that the bond between stimulus and response was established on the first occasion, and that repetition neither strengthen nor weaken the link. Habits – stimulus – response bonds. SEVERAL ELEMENTS Like Thorndike, Pavlov, and Watson, Skinner 1. He used contiguity to explain learning. believed in the stimulus – response pattern of 2. His theory is challenged on the basis of the unconditioned behavior. observation that humans often behave differently Skinner studied operant behavior or voluntary in the same situation. 3. He believed that movements were learned, not behaviors used in operating on the environment. behaviors. The process of 4. He minimized the importance of reinforcement strengthening since it occurs after the internal association Operant S-R pattern by between stimulus and response has been made. Conditioning immediately following 5. He thought one habit could be replaced by another the response with the more desirable habit. reinforcement stimulus. 6. The old habit is not forgotten, but merely Any response that will replaces, so the newer response takes place in the Reinforcement maintain or increase the future. strength of a response. 7. Three methods for replacement of an old SKINNER’S EXPERIMENT undesirable habit with a new one: Fatigue After numerous repetitions the Method animal becomes so fatigued it COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY | PSYCH314 | MIDTERM TOPICS PAGE 2 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JULIANA SERRANO AY 2024 – 2025 | PSYCH314 MIDTERM TOPICS In Skinner’s experiment, he presents a hungry rat TYPES OF LEARNING that is placed in a square box known as Skinner’s Box. RESPONDENT CONDITIONING SKINNER’S BOX EPERIMENT Classical conditioning. Refers to a particular paired stimulus (bar press At one end of the box is a small lever that projects and food pellets) consistently elicits the from the wall. The bar press is attached to a pellet response. dispenser (food magazine) which releases a food pellet every time the rat will accidentally presses the OPERANT CONDITIONING bar. A voluntary behavior or a class of responses, Since the rat is hungry it will actively explore the which is emitted or reinforced thereby the environment in which the rat will sniff the air, paw consequences increase the probability of the wall, bite here and there and eventually, will responses. stumble against the lever and in the process food. A correlated principle of Thorndike’s “Law of Effect,” The rat may not discover the food immediately, but a behavior followed by a satisfying state of affairs is when it does, it will certainly eat the food pellet. strengthened and a behavior by an annoying state The act of pressing the bar releases a food pellet of affairs is weakened. which acts as a reinforcement to the presenting behavior thus, the rat is reinforced him to keep on INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING pressing the bar, this time it is no longer accidental In the puzzle box, behaviors that let the cat reach but intentional. In this state, the rat acquired the fish were strengthened and behaviors that kept learning and conditioned to reinforcement. it in the box were weakened. Moreover, Skinner was interested in the factors that This is a process with which behaviors are determined how likely an animal was to operate the instrumental in producing certain lever. He divided the situation into the A-B-C consequences. components. REINFORCEMENT ABC COMPONENTS A process of strengthening a directly measurable dimension of behavior, such as ‘rate’, ‘duration’, ‘magnitude’, or ‘latency’, as a function of the delivery of a “values stimulus” immediately or shortly after the occurrence of the behavior. Antecedents Behaviors Consequences REINFORCER Prompting Positive Desired Reinforcement A temporally contiguous environmental event, or an Modeling Negative effect directly produced by a response, that Reinforcement function to strengthen or maintain the response that preceded the event. Feedback Punishment A reinforcer is demonstrated only if the Extinction strengthening or maintenance effect occurs. Goals Undesired Escape / RESPONSE STRENGTH Avoidance Assessed by measuring the frequency, duration, What happens before the latency, accuracy, and/or persistence of the behavior? response after reinforcement stops. Properties of the situation that Antecedents were present before the TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT animal did anything, such as the color of the box or the POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT shape of the lever. A stimulus when presented, acts to strengthen the What the animal responds? behavior that if follows. Behavior Response of the animal to a Something is added to increase the likelihood of particular outcome. a behavior. What happens after the NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT behavior? A stimulus when presented, acts to diminish or Occurrences that made it extinguish the behavior that it follows. more likely than an animal Something is removed to increase the Consequences would repeat an action – likelihood of a behavior. reinforcement. Those consequences that PUNISHMENT made it less likely – An unpleasant or painful stimulus that is added punishment. to the environment after a certain behavior COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY | PSYCH314 | MIDTERM TOPICS PAGE 3 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JULIANA SERRANO AY 2024 – 2025 | PSYCH314 MIDTERM TOPICS occurs, decreasing the likelihood that the behavior The behavior can be reinforced intermittently or will occur again. partially according to a number of different Punishment has two ways: schedules.  It is the withdrawal of a positive reinforcer Such schedules require the organisms to make the  It is the presentation of a negative designated response a certain number of times to reinforcer or aversive stimulus. gain each reinforce. POSITIVE PUNISHMENT Two main classes of intermittent reinforcement:  Ratio Refers to the presentation of the aversive stimulus  Interval after a response. The aversive stimulus decreases the chances of the RATIO response recurring. Based on the number of responses emitted. Something is added to decrease the likelihood The response is reinforced only to a certain of a behavior. proportion of the occasion it occurs. NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT Reinforcement is contingent upon the The removal of reinforcing stimulus after a Fixed Ratio occurrence of a fixed response. number of responses. This removal stimulus decreases the response of recurring. The number of responses required for reinforcement Something is removed to decrease the varies about some mean likelihood of a behavior. or average. Variable Ratio The exact number of responses required for reinforcement varies from one time to the next. INTERVAL Reinforcement given at interval or passage of time. The overall rate of responding is low because there is no reason to work rapidly, since the reinforcement will not occur until a given point in time. Reinforcement occurs on Fixed Interval a fixed time schedule. Length of time varies about some given mean time. Variable Interval Reinforcement becomes available at variable intervals. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT BASIC PROCESSES IN OPERANT CONDITIONING The frequency and timing of reinforcement following ACQUISITION AND SHAPING a desired behavior. A schedule providing a Acquisition refers to the initial state of learning reward each time the some new pattern of responding. desired behavior occurs. Shaping refers to the reinforcement of closer and It works best in closer approximations of a desired response. establishing a conditioned Gradually, the responses are successively Continuous conditioned in an ever-increasing fashion to operant response. Reinforcement It is often used in the initial resemble the terminal behavior, end behavior stage of operant aimed at a goal of operant conditioning. conditioning because it Skinner begins shaping by releasing food pellets results in rapid learning of whenever the rat moves toward the lever. The the behavior. reinforcement increases the rat’s tendency to touch the lever, the rat will spontaneously press the lever A schedule of Partial on occasion, at the end providing Skinner with an reinforcement that Reinforcement opportunity to reinforce the designated response. reinforces some, but not all. EXTINCTION COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY | PSYCH314 | MIDTERM TOPICS PAGE 4 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JULIANA SERRANO AY 2024 – 2025 | PSYCH314 MIDTERM TOPICS Gradual weakening and disappearance of a 1. S = set of stimuli which is not directly response tendency because the response is no observable longer followed by a reinforcer. 2. R = number of responses 3. T = number of possible trial outcomes GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATION 4. X = sample space set containing all possible Generalization – responding to a new stimulus as experiments or trial sequences. if it were the original. 5. P = probability measure on the Borel field B(x) Operant conditioning is governed by its of the cylinder sets of X. consequences, as organisms would learn response Estes viewed learning and behavior simply as outcome. mechanical. He included memory as a factor in his CLASSICAL theory, and suggested stimuli do not directly cause OPERANT CONDITIONING CONDITIONING a response. A reinforcing or punishing  They evoke memories of previous Signal is placed before a experiences, enabling one to analyze stimulus is given after a relfex possible outcomes and decide on the behavior. response that will lead to the most Developed in Russia Developed in US desirable outcome (scanning model of Known as “Pavlovian” Known as “Skinnerian” decision making) Estes rejected reinforcement and its relations to Also called “respondent Also known as “instrumental learning. Reinforcement has to do with the conditioning” conditioning” performance as it influences not learning, but rather Works with involuntary how already learned material will manifest itself. Works with voluntary behavior behavior Occurred through unavailable Behavior is said to be Forgetting stimulus elements due to Behavior is said to be “emitted” “elicited” external or internal variations. Typified by Pavlov’s dog Typifies by Skinner Box Spontaneous Occur due to a relevant stimuli Recovery reoccurring. ESTES THEORIES ARE ALIGNED WITH TOLMAN AND WILLIAM ESTES’ STIMULUS SAMPLING THEORY BANDURA IN TERMS OF: 1. They retain an informational interpretation of PRINCIPLES OF STIMULUS SAMPLING THEORY reinforcement. 1. While learning of a particular instance is all or none, 2. They distinguish between learning and the overall learning process is gradual and performance cumulative 3. They maintain that goals influence outcomes. There 2. Fluctuations in environmental and internal factors is also related to “Information Processing Theory” will cause variability in learning progress. EXPERIMENTS STIMULUS SAMPLING THEORY Most of the research on Stimulus Sampling Theory Developed in 1950s by American psychologist was conducted using probability or verbal William Estes, influenced by works of Edwin Guthrie learning experiments, limiting its application to and his ‘contiguity theory’ and ‘one trial learning’ other types of learning. Also called “Statistical Learning Theory” Furthermore, SST did not really take into account Its main aspect is the probability of a certain cognitive strategies used by participants in these stimulus occurring in a trial and of being paired experiments (such as hypothesis testing or the with a given response. “gamblers fallacy”) which could affect the results. Learning is viewed as a statistical process Example: the SST explanation of forgetting (as well involving the selection of stimulus elements, a as spontaneous recovery) is as followed. Over time, wide set of applications of probability functions different stimulus elements become available or to predict behavior has been proposed. unavailable for sampling due to external or This theory is a stimulus consisting of one or more internal variations. Hence, some of the stimuli that unobservable units, stimulus elements. have been conditioned in S-R pairs may not be These elements are paired with various responses available at a given time to make use of the pairing. during the process of learning. The stronger the memory, the higher the The probability of a given response to a likelihood that relevant stimuli are included in stimulus is equal to the number of stimulus the current sampling. elements associated with that response present in the given stimulus divided by the total number of stimulus elements associated with EDWARD TOLMAN’S SIGN THEORY LATENT that response. LEARNING Theory is based mainly on five primitive EDWARD TOLMAN notions: Tolman termed his theory or system of psychology as “Purposive Behaviorism” as it captured one COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY | PSYCH314 | MIDTERM TOPICS PAGE 5 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JULIANA SERRANO AY 2024 – 2025 | PSYCH314 MIDTERM TOPICS of his fundamental notions that organism central control room into a tentative map, indicating produce behavior for some adaptive purpose. routes and paths and environmental relationships, (everything we do has its purpose) which finally determine what responses, if any, the He started out as a behaviorist but acquired an animal will finally make.” interest in Gestalt theories from Kurt Lewin, and COGNITIVE MAP adapted some Gestalt concepts into his work. Tolman’s theory of behavior is rooted in these Tolman coined the term “cognitive map,” which two schools: was an internal perceptual representation of  From Gestalt Theory he borrowed the external environmental features and landmarks. idea of pattern: He thought that individuals acquire large numbers o Perception, motivation, and of cues from the environment and build up cognition are regarded as expectancies about their permanence or processes in which patterns of changeable characteristics. stimulation are identified and By using this internal representation of a physical interpreted and patterns of space they could get to the goal by knowing where reactions are planned and it is in a complex environmental feature. executed. Short cuts and variable routes are possible with  From behaviorism he borrowed the this model. idea that such mental processes must LATENT LEARNING be objectively recorded. He developed a distaste for Watson’s behaviorism Learning which is not apparent in the learner’s because he disliked “mechanistic behaviorism’s behavior at the time of learning, but which reductionistic perspectives,” He believed that manifests later when a suitable motivation and individuals do more than merely respond to circumstances appear. stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing Latent learning was further developed by Tolman. conditions, and they strive toward goals. ELEMENTS OF SIGN LATENT THEORY Tolman is the only behaviorist who found the “Stimulus-Response Theory” unacceptable, FIVE TYPES OF LEARNING because reinforcement was not necessary for All forms of learning depend upon means-end learning to occur. readiness, i.e., goal-oriented behavior, mediated by He felt behavior was holistic, purposive, and expectations, perceptions, representations, and cognitive. other internal or environmental variables. Behavior is not a response to a stimulus but is cognitive coping with a pattern of stimuli. Positive response to a stimulus, Approach typically leading to reward or PRINCIPLES OF SIGN LATENT LEARNING Learning satisfaction. 1. Learning is always purposive and goal – directed Organism learns to perform a 2. Learning often involves the use of environmental Escape behavior to terminate an factors to achieve a goal (e.g., means-ends- Learning ongoing negative or aversive analysis). stimulus. 3. Organisms will select the shortest or easiest path Similar to escape learning; to achieve a goal. Avoidance involves learning a behavior to SIGN THEORY OR SIGN GESTALT THEORY Learning prevent an aversive stimulus from occurring in the first place. Also known as Purposive Behaviorism. He put forth the notion that there are three parts to Making a choice between two or Choice-point more options based on previous learning which work together as a gestalt. Learning experiences and expectations  Significant – goal of behavior  Sign – signal for action of reward or punishment.  Means-end relations – internal Learning which is not apparent processes and relationships. in the learner’s behavior at the Purposive Behaviorism is considered as the bridge Latent time of learning, but which between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Learning manifests later when a suitable In Sign Learning, an organism learns by pursuing motivation and circumstances signs to a goal that learning is acquired through appear. meaningful behavior. TOLMAN’S BEHAVIORISM He believed learning is an accumulation of these sign gestalts, and that they are then configured Emphasized the relationships between stimuli into cognitive maps. rather than stimulus – response. Tolman emphasized the organized aspect of A new stimulus (sign) becomes associated with learning: “The stimuli which are allowed in are not already meaningful stimuli (significate) through a connected by just simple one-to-one switches to the series of pairings; there was no need for outgoing responses. Rather the incoming impulses reinforcement in order to establish learning. are usually worked over and elaborated in the COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY | PSYCH314 | MIDTERM TOPICS PAGE 6 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JULIANA SERRANO AY 2024 – 2025 | PSYCH314 MIDTERM TOPICS INTERVENING VARIABLES memories, and inferences function. Tolman introduced intervening variables into the Learning to discriminate nomenclature of learning psychology. Drive between competing or more Discrimination refined drives. Learning and refinement of Motor Patterns sensory – motor skills. THREE LAWS OF TOLMAN To disprove Thorndike’s Law of Effect. Learning is propelled by Law of gaining final successes or Motivation avoiding final failures. Learning consists of building THREE CLASSES OF VARIABLE up patterns and gestalts and then selecting or Dependent Behaviors or responses being emphasizing particular variable observed and measured. responses which emerge that Law of Independent Environmental and Individual tend to favor getting to the variable Emphasis variation. ultimate final success. Variables are hypothetical The organism emphasizes constructs rather than physical certain behaviors over others parameters. because they grant better They are definable and pleasure or survival value. measurable but not observable. The violent stimuli either Intervening They have functional physical (such as electric variables relationships with both Law of shock) or emotional coming in independent and dependent Disruption sequence with the right or variables. wrong responses will tend to They are internal cognitive disrupt learning. processes. TOLMAN’S MAZE EXPIREMENT EXPECTANCY THEORY Tolman wanted to know how rats successfully In animal experiments, Tolman and his associates navigate their surroundings. trained subjects to learn a maze with a preferred  He suspected that rats would build mental food as a reward. maps of the maze as they investigated it They observed that if they switched to a less (forming a mental picture of the layout of preferred reward, the rats displayed disgust. the maze). Tolman attributed this to “acquisition of  Many of his colleagues thought that rats expectancies” in response to the “signs” or would learn to navigate the maze through “stimuli” of a particular situation. stimulus – response, associating particular The problem was, he never defined expectancy cues with particular outcomes without even though it was a powerful element in his forming any big picture of the maze. system. PROCEDURE SIX TYPES OF LEARNING In their study, 3 groups of rats had to find their way Connecting or associating basic around a complex maze. drives with desired goals with At the end of the maze, there was a food box. Some Learning by groups of rats got to eat the food, some did not, and the end result of developing Cathexes for some rats the food was only available after 10 preferences for certain types of food, drink, sex-objects, etc. days. Sub-goals leading to major Equivalence ones acquire similar Beliefs attractiveness as the end goals. Acquisitions of sets of gestalts Field (internal maps) enable the Expectancies individual to route himself based on these internal maps. Field Cognition Denote learning is influenced by Modes the ways that perceptions, COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY | PSYCH314 | MIDTERM TOPICS PAGE 7 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JULIANA SERRANO AY 2024 – 2025 | PSYCH314 MIDTERM TOPICS works to maintain a certain state of balance or equilibrium. Hull suggested that all ‘motivation’ arises as a result of these biological needs. In his theory, Hull used the term ‘drive’ to refer to the state of tension or arousal caused by biological or physiological needs. ‘Thirst,’ ‘hunger,’ and the need for ‘warmth’ are all examples of ‘drives.’ Thus, ‘drive’ creates an unpleasant state; a tension that needs to be reduced. In order to reduce this state of tension, humans and animals seek out ways to fulfill these biological needs.  An organism drinks when thirsty, or eats Group 1: Rewarded when hungry; organism turns up the  Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, thermostat when temperature is cold. given food (i.e., reinforced).  Hull suggested that humans and animals Group 2: Rewarded will then repeat any behavior that reduces  Day 1 – 10: Every time they got to end, these drives. taken out. He believed that human behavior could be  Day 11 – 17: Every time they got to end, explained by ‘conditioning’ and ‘reinforcement.’ given food (i.e., reinforced). The reduction of the drive acts as a reinforcement Group 3: No reward for that behavior. This reinforcement increases the  Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, likelihood that the same behavior will occur again in taken out. the future when the same need arises. RESULTS PRINCIPLES The delayed reward group learned the route on Hull’s basic assumption is in order to survive in days 1 to 10 and formed a cognitive map of the the environment, an organism must behave in maze. They took longer to reach the end of the ways that meet so-called the survival needs. maze because there was no motivation for them to When survival is in jeopardy, the organism is in a perform. state of need (when the biological requirements for From day 11 onwards, they had the motivation to survival are not being met), so the organism perform (i.e. food) and reached the end before the behaves in a fashion to reduce that need. reward group In a ‘stimulus – response (S – R) relationship,’ it TOLMAN’S INVESTIGATION MEASURES explains that when the stimulus and response are followed by a reduction in the need, it 1. The brains of rats and their workings are part of the increases the likelihood that the same stimulus natural world, as is the behavior of rats. will elicit the same response again in the future. 2. Tolman aimed to explain ow rats navigate their Thus, ‘four stimulus-response principles’ are surroundings. 3. The two ideas about how rats navigate (mental formulated below: maps vs. Stimulus – response) are ‘testable,’ but Essential in order for figuring out how to test them required some clever Drive responses to occur (i.e., the and logical thinking. student must want to learn). 4. Tolman and his colleagues tested the mental map Must be detected by the idea with several experiments, including the Stimuli and organism in order for aforementioned tunnel experiment described. In responses conditioning to occur (i.e., the that experiment, they found that most of the rats student must be attentive). picked a tunnel that led in the direction of the food, Must be made in order for instead of one close to the original reward tunnel. Response conditioning to occur (i.e., the student must be active). CLARK HULL’S DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY Only occurs if the reinforcement satisfied a need An influential American psychologist sought to Conditioning (i.e., the learning must satisfy the explain “learning” and “motivation” by the learner’s wants). scientific laws of behavior. DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY He drew on ideas from Charles Darwin, and a number of stimulus – response theorists Hull developed a version of behaviorism in (behaviorists) including Pavlov, Watson, and which the stimulus (S) affects the organism (O) Thorndike. and the resulting response (R) depends upon Hull has based his theory around the concept of characteristics of both O and S. ‘homeostasis,’ the idea that the body actively COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY | PSYCH314 | MIDTERM TOPICS PAGE 8 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JULIANA SERRANO AY 2024 – 2025 | PSYCH314 MIDTERM TOPICS In other words, Hull was interested in studying 𝒔𝑬𝒓 – excitatory potential, or the likelihood that an intervening variables that affected behavior organism will produce a response (r) to a stimulus such as initial drive, incentives, inhibitors, and (s). prior training (habit strength). 𝒔𝑯𝒓 – habit strength, established by the number of Like other forms of behavior theory, reinforcement previous conditionings. is the primary factor that determines learning. 𝑫 – drive strength, determined by the amount of However, in Hull’s theory, drive reduction or need biological deprivation. satisfaction plays a much more important role in 𝑲 – incentive motivation, or the size or magnitude behavior than in other frameworks (i.e., of the goal connectionism, operant conditioning). 𝑱 – the delay before the organism is allowed to seek POSTULATES OF HULL’S THEORETICAL reinforcement. FRAMEWORK IN MATHEMATICAL FORM 𝒍𝒓 – reactive inhibition, or fatigue Possess a hierarchy of needs 𝒔𝒍𝒓 – conditioned inhibition, cause by previous lack which are aroused under of reinforcement. Organisms conditions of stimulation and 𝒔𝑳𝒓 – reaction threshold, the smallest amount of drive. reinforcement that will produce learning. Increases with activities that are 𝒔𝑶𝒓 – random error associated with primary or secondary reinforcement. In short: Habit Aroused by a stimulus other than Strength the one originally conditioned 𝑠𝐸𝑟 = 𝑠𝐻𝑟 × 𝐷 depends upon the closeness of the second stimulus in terms of Where: discrimination thresholds. 𝒔𝑬𝒓 – reaction potential (likelihood of producing a response in a given situation) Associated with the cessation of a 𝒔𝑯𝒓 – habit strength (strength of association Stimuli response become conditioned between stimuli and responses, contiguity) inhibitors. 𝑫 – drive strength (how much the reinforcement is The more effective reaction required) potential exceeds the reaction threshold, the shorter the latency EXPERIMENT variables of response. Hull claimed that animals acquire habit Hull proposed many types of hierarchies, that is, in any given situation, a variables that accounted for stimulus may become associated with a number generalization, motivation, and of different responses, so that it may have links variability (oscillation) in learning. to many responses. HABIT STRENGTH HIERARCHY The pathway maze, represented in similar: One of the most important concepts in Hull’s theory. For a given stimulus, an organism can respond in a number of ways. The likelihood of a specific response has a probability which can be changed by reward and is affected by various Similar in Tolman’s ‘means-end-held’ significant other variables (e.g., inhibition). novel phenomenon of the ‘habit family’ In some respects, habit strength hierarchies He defined the family of habits as a group of two resemble components of cognitive theories such as or more habit sequences, all of which may be schema and production systems. initiated by a particular stimulus and terminated by a particular reaction. Hull’s theory includes intervening variables, and The principle of habit-family hierarchy, however, is comprises of both contiguity and contingency. not limited to the field of spatial orientation here His basic theory of learning stated that the emphasized. It is operative in all situations appropriate responses to a given stimulus wherever there is more than one distinct action condition or situation reduced the particular sequence which will lead to the attainment of a drives. particular goal or subgoal. Hull’s goal was to develop a theory of learning that could be expressed mathematically so that to In Hull's terms, the running of the maze is a series create a ‘formula’ to explain and understand of responses to the stimuli from the maze, and human behavior. connections between these stimuli and responses are strengthened by the reinforcing food. MATHEMATICO DEDUCTIVE THEORY OF BEHAVIOR The maze performance is a habit which becomes 𝑠𝐸𝑟 = 𝑉 × 𝐷 × 𝐾 × 𝐽 × 𝑠𝐻𝑟 − 𝑠𝑙𝑟 − 𝐼𝑟 − 𝑠𝑂𝑟 − 𝑠𝐿𝑟 stronger with the number of times it is reinforced. Where: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY | PSYCH314 | MIDTERM TOPICS PAGE 9 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JULIANA SERRANO AY 2024 – 2025 | PSYCH314 MIDTERM TOPICS KENNETH SPENCE’S DISCRIMINATION LEARNING A neutral stimulus that becomes coupled with a primary stimulus takes on reinforcing capacity itself. Discrimination learning involves the use of environmental cues to signal the availability or EXTINCTION OF BEHAVIOR IN CLASSICAL LEARNING unavailability of positive and negative THEORETICAL IDEAS OF SPENCE reinforcement as well as punishment. Discrimination learning takes place by establishing 1. Hypothesized that discrimination occurs through connections between specific stimuli and reinforcement combined with frustration or responses, reinforced by a reward when the inhibition. The excitatory tendencies of the proper response is given. reinforced stimulus increase; those of the In “Behavior Theory and Conditioning,” he related unreinforced one weaken through an active his findings to a behavior in general, as well as to inhibitory process. specific learning systems. 2. Spence identified Tolman’s approach as SS, or The strength of learning potential, in Spence’s view, sign-significate learning “…organization into some is dependent both on the strength of the drive (such kind of functional whole of the perceptual systems as hunger or sex) that the response satisfies and on of the subject.” A tendency to explain learning in the strength of the incentive, the chief variables of terms of circumstances in the perceptual field. The which are the amount of reinforcement given and ‘S-R model’ by contrast, accounted for learning by the delay between the response and the reward. stimulus-response connections. 3. Spence considered ‘reinforcement,’ rather than DISCRIMINATION LEARNING THEORY affecting ‘habit strength,’ affected “incentive A number of contributions pertinent to the motivation.” “Discrimination Learning Theory” are attributed to 4. Hull defined learning (habit) broadly. He thought Spence as described below: many different independent variables could affect it, but that there were only a few tings which resulted INCENTIVE MOTIVATION AND ITS MATHEMATICAL in motivation (drive). Spence reversed this FORMULATION relationship, For hum, motivation was broadly Hull’s theory was a habit theory of behavior. determined, including as it did both drive and Spence departed from Hull because he attributed incentive motivation, whereas habit strength was improvement in performance to motivational factors just a function of the number of stimulus-response rather than habit factors. pairings (a sort of contiguity position). LOGIC AND SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY IN Spence proposed that when organisms learn to PSYCHOLOGY respond to a stimulus for reinforcement, the Spence identified four different kinds of theories in tendency to respond generalizes to other psychology. similar stimuli (defining a gradient of stimulus These were “animalistic conceptions”, the belief generalization). that soul, libido, vital energy, or other vague “forces” Similarly, responding to the S- results in a gradient within the organism guided behavior; of inhibition around the value of the S- stimulus. “neurophysiological theories” such as Pavlov and Spence elaborated that it is the dimension that Kohler; “Response – Inferred Theoretical determines the strength of responding (the net Constructs,” such as put forth by Gestaltists such response strength) at other points on the dimension as Kurt Lewin; and “Intervening Variable” theories (brightness in the example described). of Hull and Tolman. If one assumes that the gradients are convex DISTINCTION BETWEEN SS (SIGN – SIGNIFICATE) AND then the net gradient typically has its peak value SR (STIMULUS RESPONSE) LEARNING not at the S+ but at a point away from the S+ in the direction away from the S-. SS is more gestalt, emphasizing the perceptual nature of learning, while SR postulates associative This occurs because, given the presumed shape of connections between stimuli and responses and is the gradients, there would be a smaller decline in thus more along the lines of behaviorist theories. response strength as one begins to move away from the S+ than there would be a decline in EXPERIMENTATION IN DISCRIMINATION LEARNING inhibition at that point in the inhibitory gradient. Spence observed that reinforcement combined with Spence proposed that when organisms learn to frustration or inhibitors facilitated finding a correct respond to a stimulus for reinforcement, the stimulus among a cluster which included incorrect tendency to respond generalizes to other ones. similar stimuli. ABSOLUTE STIMULUS THEORY AND TRANSPOSITION EXPERIMENT (TRANSPOSITION) Transpositional phenomena referred to the A pigeon may be given a 3 cm diameter circle and tendency of an organism to select between two a 4 cm diameter circle and trained to select the ‘new’ stimuli based on learning from a previous smaller circle. relationship of stimulus and response. Once discrimination is mastered, the pigeon might be shown a 2 cm diameter circle and a 3 cm IMPORTANCE OF SECONDARY REINFORCEMENT diameter circle. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY | PSYCH314 | MIDTERM TOPICS PAGE 10 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JULIANA SERRANO AY 2024 – 2025 | PSYCH314 MIDTERM TOPICS A choice of a previously reinforced, 3 cm diameter The Hull and Spence viewed that circle indicates control by exact properties of the excitation and inhibition stimuli rather than their relations and is termed gradually increase during the Continuity absolute response. acquisition of a verses In contrast, ignoring a previously reinforced circle discrimination. Discontinuity and selecting a new, 2 cm diameter circle suggests This position is called the learning to attend to relations among the stimuli and continuity theory of is termed relational response. discrimination learning. Spence has shown that the choice of relationally KRECHEVSKY AND LASHLEY;S NONCONTINUITY correct stimulus can be explained by interaction of THEORY OF DISCRIMINATION LEARNING absolute response tendencies. Denies that discrimination learning is gradually ELEMENTS OF DISCRIMINATION LEARNING acquired. Instead, subjects are presumed to form hypotheses about the relevant dimension that Kohler explained that stimuli are predicts reinforcement. evaluated in relative, not Predicts that discrimination performance is absolute, terms. exceptional once the relevant stimulus dimension is Subjects learn the relationships discovered. between stimuli in discrimination training. Kohler’s relational view is Transposition COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY supported in discrimination tasks Effect in which the subject must choose between two MEANING AND ORIGIN OF COGNITIVE LEARNING presented stimuli. THEORY Hull-Spence theory is an adequate explanation when Cognitive theories are employed as a guiding subjects are tested with only one principle in studying learning. stimulus at a time. The inferences on Cognitive Learning Theory about observable mental processes can be drawn from Refers to the development of such behavior. maximum responding to a stimulus other than the SD that Cognitive theorists believe that learners are The Peak Shift actively involved in the learning process; they is in a direction opposite to Phenomenon acquired new material from the previous the 𝑺∆. learned information. Thus, cognitive theories are Experimental support exists for associated with “Information – Processing,” the peak shift effect “Artificial Intelligence,” and “Linguistic” Hull – Spence viewed that discrimination learning Both philosophical framework develops in three stages: Cognitive and learning theory that 1. Conditioned excitation – develops to the SD Psychology or emphasizes the active mental as the result of reinforcement. Cognitivism processing of information. 2. Conditioned inhibition – develops to the 𝑆 ∆ as the result of non – reinforcement Cognitivism is the product of cognitivist 3. Conditioned Excitation and Inhibition – revolution with which the movement had replaces have generalization gradients. behaviorism in 1960s as the dominant paradigm. Cognitivists or cognitive psychologists believed that The Hull – ‘mental processes’ are the essentials for Spence An associative description of learning to take place. Discrimination some essential features of Learning Cognitivists argues that thinking is not a behavior discrimination learning. Theory by itself, because mental processes play a vital role in the mental construction (i.e. schema, The symbol 𝑆 𝐷 is used to information, perception, etc.). indicate the availability of Cognitivists posited that thinking is essential in reinforcement contingent upon psychology and learning that the study of thinking the occurrence of an appropriate should become its own field otherwise known as Discrimination response. “Cognitive Psychology” Training The symbol 𝑆 ∆ is used to indicate Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities in that reinforcement is not opening the “black box” of the human mind; is available and a response will not valuable and necessary for understanding how be effective in producing people learn. reinforcement. Such as thinking, memory, When operant behavior is Mental knowing, and problem solving Discriminative processes under the control of a necessitate to be explored. Operant discriminative stimulus. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY | PSYCH314 | MIDTERM TOPICS PAGE 11 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JULIANA SERRANO AY 2024 – 2025 | PSYCH314 MIDTERM TOPICS Can be seen as schema or It has also the basis of the educational approach Knowledge symbolic mental known as “constructivism,” which emphasized constructions. the role of learner in constructing his own view Change in a learner’s or model of the information. Learning schemata. THEORETICAL FOUNDATION People are not programmed animals that merely BEHAVIORISM respond to environmental stimuli; people are rational being that require active participation in Learning theories propounded by the behaviorists order to learn, and whose actions are a learning, are mechanical processes of associating consequence of thinking. the stimuli with responses that produce a new Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an behavior – such behavior is strengthened by indication of what is occurring in the learner’s head. reinforcement. Uses the metaphor of the Behaviorists viewed the learner as a passive mind as computer information person who responds to the stimuli. Cognitivism comes in, is being processed, They posited that the learner starts as “tabula and leads to certain rasa;” and the behavior is shaped by the outcomes. “reinforcement.” An information processing Positive as well as negative reinforcement increase Cognitive psychology derived in part the probability of the repetition of behavior. The Psychology from earlier tradition of punishment decreases the chances of repetition of thought and problem solving. the behavior. Learning is therefore defined as a change in the Cognitive psychologists challenge the limitations of behavior of the learner. behaviorism in its focus on observable behavior. They incorporate mental structure and process COGNITIVISM into their learning theories. Cognitivism refers to the study of the mind and Like behaviorists, they engage more in the how it obtains, processes, and stores ‘hypothetico – deductive scientific inquiry.’ information. The primary focus of the research study in cognitive It was argued that not all learning occurs through psychology emphasizes the internal processes shaping and changing of behaviors. and structures processes inferred through the Learners are active participants in their learning, observation of behavior. and the mind functions like a computer processor. However, the focus on the mental structures and Information comes in as input, the mind processes processes in cognitive psychology does not the information for the time being, and the explicitly indicate its philosophical position, but information is stored away to be retrieved later. rather, a theoretical underpinning. Learning is shaped by acquired learning Cognitivists who also strategies and prior knowledge and attitudes, happened to be Cognitivists called Schemas. behaviorists The cognitive view of learning is teacher – centered, Max Wertheimer, and information must be presented in an organized Kurt Koffa, manner in order to achieve the most efficient Wolfgang learning. Kohler’s Gestalt TWO MAJOR COMPONENTS OF COGNITIVISM and Insight Learning. Cognitivism adopts a positivist Jean Piaget’s approach and the belief that Cognitive psychology can be (in principle) Development and explained fully by the use of Edward Thorndike’s experiment, measurement, Schema Theories Connectionism and scientific method. David Ausubel’s Methodological Edward Tolman’s This is considered a reductionist Subsumption Latent Theory goal with the belief that Theory Lev Vygotsky’s individual components of Sociocultural mental functions (the cognitive Theory architecture) can be identified Jerome Bruner’s and understood. Theory Cognitivism is the belief that Albert Bandura’s cognition consists of discrete, Cognitive Social internal mental states Learning Theory Theoretical (representations or symbols) Furthermore, the cognitive learning has general whose manipulation can be educational implications. described in terms of rules or algorithms. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY | PSYCH314 | MIDTERM TOPICS PAGE 12 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY JULIANA SERRANO AY 2024 – 2025 | PSYCH314 MIDTERM TOPICS The internal representation of John Dewey, Marie Montessori, and David Kolb the learners can echo the served as the foundation of constructivist learning external reality, which asserts a theory. position of objectivism that the Constructivism views learning as a process in mind can stand separate and which the learner actively constructs or builds independent from the body. new ideas or concepts based upon current and Thus, knowledge can be past knowledge or experience. transferred from the outside of Learning involves constructing one’s own the mind into the inside of the knowledge from one’s own experiences. mind. Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal COGNITIVE THEORIES endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be Cognitive theories of learning are concerned with applied in a practical real – world context. processes which occur inside the brain and nervous system as a person learns. VARIATIONS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM They share the perspective that people actively It has many variations; process information and learning takes place  Active learning through the efforts of the learners.  Discovery learning Internal mental processes include inputting,  Knowledge learning organizing, storing, retrieving, and finding Regardless of the variety, it promotes a student’s relationships between information. free exploration within a given framework or New information is linked to old knowledge, structure. schema and scripts. The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages USE OF THIS THEORY students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic Cognitivism is suited well for problem solving, problems. where the concepts are complex and must be Aspects of constructivism can be found in self broken down into smaller parts. – directed learning, transformational learning, Ideas and concepts from these problems are and experiential learning. linked to prior knowledge, which in turn helps the TWO TYPES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM THAT EMERGED IN learner develop a stronger comprehension. THE LATE 1970s STRENGTHS 1. Lev Vygotsky introduced Social Constructivism, Organized structure to learning: information this social interaction with others helps the learner comes in and is processed into short term memory put meaning to information. Vygotsky noted a “Zone before being stored away in long term memory. of Proximal Development,” in which learners can develop a certain level of meaning on their own but When problems are broken down into smaller parts, can grow greater after interacting with classmates learners are not overwhelmed with incoming and instructors. information and have time to process smaller bits. 2. In 1985, Jean Piaget introduced Cognitive WEAKNESS Constructivism. This cognition is constructed by Because learning is very structured, it may become either assimilation or accommodation. difficult to adapt to changes in what has already An incoming information is Assimilation been processed and learned. associated with a scheme CONSTRUCTIVISM An incoming information does not match as scheme. The study of a learner’s own construction of Accommodation Thus, the schema must be knowledge.