Psychology Final Review PDF

psych final review ________________ Week 8: Attention What is Attention? * Selective Processing: Attention allows us to focus on relevant stimuli while ignoring distractions. * Example: The cocktail party effect demonstrates selective attention, where you can focus on one conversation despi...

psych final review ________________ Week 8: Attention What is Attention? * Selective Processing: Attention allows us to focus on relevant stimuli while ignoring distractions. * Example: The cocktail party effect demonstrates selective attention, where you can focus on one conversation despite background noise. * Flashbulb Memories: Vivid yet fallible memories of emotionally significant events; attention enhances their creation but not necessarily their accuracy. ________________ Types of Processing * Bottom-Up: Automatic and driven by salient stimuli (e.g., a fire alarm). * Top-Down: Goal-directed, shaped by prior knowledge (e.g., searching for car keys). ________________ Measuring Attention 1. Orienting & Cueing: * Spatial cueing measures shifts in attention. * Inhibition of Return (IOR): Avoids revisiting previously attended areas, promoting efficient search. 2. Visual Search: * Pop-Out Effect: Targets with distinct features stand out. * Conjunctive Search: Targets defined by multiple features are harder to locate. ________________ Attentional Limitations * Inattentional Blindness: Failure to notice unexpected stimuli (e.g., gorilla in basketball task experiment by Simons & Chabris). * Change Blindness: Difficulty detecting changes in a visual scene. ________________ Automaticity & The Stroop Effect * Automatic Processing: After practice, tasks become effortless (e.g., reading). * Stroop Task: Demonstrates interference when word meaning conflicts with text color. ________________ Models of Attention 1. Spotlight Model: Attention enhances stimuli within a focused area, akin to a spotlight. 2. Filter Models: * Broadbent's Early Selection: Filters based on physical characteristics before meaning. * Treisman’s Attenuation Model: Unattended stimuli are dampened but can still capture attention. * Late Filter Models: Filtering occurs after semantic processing. ________________ Week 9: Memory Memory: An Overview * Definition: Memory is reconstructive, shaped by current goals and context rather than a perfect record of events. * Example: The DRM paradigm demonstrates reconstructive memory, where people recall related but non-presented words. ________________ Stages of Memory 1. Encoding: Information enters memory; attention is critical. 2. Storage: Maintains information over time, though memories can change. 3. Retrieval: Accessing stored information, often aided by retrieval cues. ________________ Types of Memory 1. Sensory Memory: Briefly holds perceptual information. * Iconic Memory: Visual stimuli. * Echoic Memory: Auditory stimuli. 2. Short-Term Memory (STM): Temporarily stores selected information. * Chunking: Combines bits of information for efficient processing. 3. Working Memory: Adds components to STM: * Phonological Loop: Verbal/auditory information. * Visuospatial Sketchpad: Visual/spatial information. * Episodic Buffer: Links information from STM and long-term memory (LTM). * Central Executive: Coordinates information across components. 4. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Stores past experiences and knowledge. * Declarative (Explicit): Facts (semantic) and events (episodic). * Nondeclarative (Implicit): Skills (procedural) and conditioned responses. ________________ Principles of Memory 1. Levels of Processing: Deeper, semantic encoding enhances retention. * Example: Remembering a word by its meaning (deep) vs. its appearance (shallow). 2. Encoding Specificity: Memory improves when retrieval context matches encoding context. 3. Transfer-Appropriate Processing: Successful retrieval occurs when encoding and retrieval processes align. ________________ Forgetting * Decay Theory: Memory fades over time, especially in STM. * Interference Theory: * Proactive Interference: Old memories block new ones. * Retroactive Interference: New memories disrupt old ones. * Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve: Rapid initial forgetting, then slower decline over time. ________________ Memory Errors 1. Misinformation Effect: New, misleading information distorts past memories. 2. Source Confusion: Misattributing the origin of a memory. * Example: False Fame Effect, where familiarity leads to mistaken judgments of fame. ________________ Primacy and Recency Effects * Primacy Effect: Early items in a list are better remembered (LTM). * Recency Effect: Recent items are remembered (STM). ________________ Practical Applications * Memory improves with: * Chunking and rehearsal. * Using meaningful, context-rich encoding strategies. * Aligning retrieval cues with encoding contexts. ________________ Week 10: Forming Impressions Here’s the combined study note for Week 10, with an emphasis on module content and integration of unique chapter insights. ________________ Introduction to Social Perception * Humans are inherently social, forming impressions through interactions. * Judgment Formation: * Impressions are influenced by both conscious and unconscious judgments. * Example: Denise’s negative impression of a rude stranger highlights the immediacy of forming opinions. ________________ Attribution Theories 1. Covariation Theory (Kelley): * Evaluates behavior based on: * Consensus: Do others behave similarly in this situation? * Distinctiveness: Does the person behave differently in other situations? * Consistency: Does the person act the same way over time in this situation? * Example: High consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency → situational attribution. 2. Correspondent Inference Theory: * Focuses on dispositional attributions based on: * Degree of Choice: Freely chosen behaviors reflect personality. * Expectations: Unexpected behaviors are more informative. * Intended Consequences: Outcomes may indicate motives. * Example: A professor wearing roller skates defies expectations, making the behavior more noticeable. ________________ Attribution Errors 1. Fundamental Attribution Error: Overestimating dispositional factors and underestimating situational ones. * Example: Assuming a reckless driver is careless without considering an emergency. 2. Actor-Observer Effect: Attributing one’s own actions to situations but others’ to dispositions. 3. Self-Serving Bias: Successes attributed to internal factors, failures to external factors. 4. Cultural Variations: * Collectivist cultures emphasize situational attributions. * Individualist cultures prioritize dispositional attributions. ________________ Cognitive Heuristics 1. Representativeness Heuristic: Judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype. * Example: Assuming a well-dressed person is successful without evidence. 2. Availability Heuristic: Judgments influenced by how easily examples come to mind. * Example: Overestimating the risk of plane crashes after seeing news coverage. 3. False Consensus Effect: Overestimating how much others share our opinions. 4. Illusory Correlation: Believing two unrelated variables are connected, often contributing to stereotypes. * Example: Assuming dishonesty is common among lawyers based on one bad experience. ________________ Attraction and Relationships 1. Proximity: Physical closeness fosters attraction. * Example: Co-workers who frequently interact are more likely to bond. 2. Familiarity: Familiar faces are perceived as more attractive (mere exposure effect). 3. Physical Attractiveness: Leads to the Halo Effect, where attractive people are assumed to have other positive traits. 4. Reciprocal Liking: We tend to like those who like us. ________________ Stereotypes and Bias * Implicit Association Test (IAT): Reveals unconscious biases by measuring reaction times. * Stereotypes: Formed through cognitive shortcuts like heuristics but can lead to errors and generalizations. ________________ Practical Applications * Awareness of attribution errors and heuristics can help mitigate biases. * Understanding factors like proximity and familiarity informs relationship-building strategies. ________________ Week 11: Influence of Others Here’s the consolidated note for Week 11, integrating both the module and chapter material while focusing on module insights. ________________ Introduction to Social Influence * Human behavior is profoundly shaped by the presence and actions of others. * Examples: Behavior changes in formal settings versus casual, rowdy environments. * Social psychology explores how group dynamics affect individual decisions and behaviors. ________________ Obedience and Conformity 1. Obedience: * Milgram’s Experiment: * Setup: Participants (teachers) administered shocks to learners (confederates) under the experimenter’s instruction. * Findings: 65% of participants delivered maximum shocks despite visible distress from learners. * Key Variables: * Institutional prestige had little effect. * Obedience decreased with proximity to the learner or reduced authority of the experimenter. * Hofling’s Nurse Study: * 95% of nurses followed unethical instructions over the phone, demonstrating obedience in real-world settings. 2. Conformity: * Sherif’s Norm Formation: * In ambiguous situations (e.g., light movement experiment), group norms influence individual judgments. * Asch’s Line Study: * Participants conformed to incorrect group answers 75% of the time in at least one trial. * Driven by: * Normative Influence: Desire for approval or to avoid rejection. * Informational Influence: Seeking clarity in ambiguous situations. ________________ Group Dynamics 1. Social Facilitation: * Performance improves in the presence of others for well-practiced tasks but declines for complex tasks. * Zajonc’s Resolution: Presence of others increases arousal, affecting performance based on task difficulty. 2. Social Loafing: Individuals exert less effort in groups compared to working alone. * Example: Participants in a tug-of-war pulled less forcefully when they believed they were part of a team. 3. Group Polarization: Group discussions amplify initial tendencies (e.g., riskier or more cautious decisions). 4. Groupthink: Desire for cohesion and consensus overrides critical thinking. * Prevention: * Encourage debate. * Assign a devil’s advocate. * Reassess decisions periodically. ________________ Persuasion 1. Key Components: * The Communicator: Credibility and relatability enhance persuasiveness. * The Message: One-sided for agreeing audiences; two-sided for skeptical ones. * The Audience: Logical appeals work for academic audiences; emotional simplicity for non-academic ones. 2. Techniques: * Foot-in-the-Door: Start small, then escalate requests. * Low-Ball: Secure commitment, then reveal additional costs. * Door-in-the-Face: Start with a large request, then follow with a smaller one. ________________ Helping and Harming Others 1. Helping Behavior: * Bystander Effect: Diffusion of responsibility reduces individual intervention likelihood. * Example: Kitty Genovese case sparked research into this phenomenon. * Overcoming the effect: * Assign responsibility directly. * Witnessing others help increases future helping behaviors. 2. Harming Behavior: * Aggression: * Relational Aggression: Indirect harm (e.g., spreading rumors). * Hostile Aggression: Direct confrontations (e.g., fights). * Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study: Demonstrated learned aggression through modeling observed behaviors. ________________ The Stanford Prison Experiment * Participants adopted prisoner and guard roles, leading to dehumanizing behavior and emotional distress. * Highlights: * Deindividuation: Loss of individuality in groups encourages anti-normative behavior. * Criticism: Ethical concerns and potential experimenter bias. ________________