Psychology Chapter 5 Notes - Classical and Operant Conditioning PDF

Learning Classical Conditioning: Learning: is a relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about by experience. ○ Distinguishes between changes due to maturation and changed brought about by experience. ○ Distinguishes between short-term changes in per...

Learning Classical Conditioning: Learning: is a relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about by experience. ○ Distinguishes between changes due to maturation and changed brought about by experience. ○ Distinguishes between short-term changes in performance and actual learning. ○ Performance doesnt always reflect learning, so determining true learning can be difficult. Classical Conditioning: learning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, triggering a similar response. ○ Discovered by Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov in 1904. ○ Pavlov studied dogs' salivation and stomach acids. ○ Dogs salivated to food and other stimuli (e.g., footsteps, experimenter's presence). ○ Pavlov discovered dogs learned to associate these stimuli with food (classical conditioning). The Basics of Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning: a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. ○ During classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus is transformed into the conditioned stimulus bc it is being repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Neutral stimulus (NS): a stimulus that does not naturally trigger a response. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that naturally triggers a response [e.g. food causes salivation]. Unconditioned response (UCR): a natural, unlearned response [e.g. salivation to food]. Conditioned stimulus (CS): a previously neutral stimulus that, after pairing with the UCS, triggers a response [e.g. bell after conditioning]. Condtioned response (CR): a learned response to conditioned stimulus [e.g. salivation to the bell]. Classical Conditioning Timing & Sequence: The timing and sequence of stimuli are crucial for successful conditioning, A neutral stimulus presented before the unconditioned stimulus [UCS] is more likely to result in conditioning. A neutral stimulus presented after the UCS is less likely to cause conditioning. ○ Ex: a cat becomes excited when it hears a can opener [neutral stimulus before food], but not when it’s put away [after food]. Key Concepts: Conditioned = learned; Unconditoned = not learned. UCS > UCR: unconditioned stimulus triggers an unconditioned response naturally. A neutral stimulus, after repeated pairing with the UCS, becomes the conditioned stimulus [CS]. ➔ Extinction: is a basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears. ◆ To produce extinction, one needs to end the associated between the CS and UCS. ➔ Spontaneous recovery: is the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning. ➔ Stimulus generalization: occurs when a stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus trigger the same response, ➔ Stimulus discrimination: happens when two stimuli are distinct enough that one triggers a conditioned response and the other does not. Beyond Traditional Classical Conditioning: ➔ Pavolv believed linking stimuli and responses occurred in a mechanistic way, without active thought, ➔ John Garcia's Conditioned Taste Aversion experiments showed that UCS (e.g., sickness) does not always follow CS (e.g., food) immediately, challenging the classical conditioning rule. ➔ Biological preparedness (martin seligman): explains why we are more likely to learn certain associations based on evolutionary needs. ◆ Traits aiding survival (Darwin theory) are passed down. Operant Conditioning: Operant conditioning: is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened depending on its favourable or unfavourable response.  Thorndike’s law of effect: responses that lead to satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated. ○ ​Thorndike believed the law operated automatically, with organisms forming stimulus-response connections unconsciously through experience. The basics of operant conditioning: Reinforcement: the central concept of operant conditioning Reinforcement: is the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behaviour will be repeated. Reinforcer: any stimulus that increases the the probability of a behaviour recurring. ○ Primary reinforcer: naturally satisfies biological needs (e.g food, warmth) ○ Secondary reinforcer: gains reinforcing properties through association with a primary reinforcer (e.g. money) A stimulus is only a reinforcer if it increases behaviour frequency. Shaping: reinforcing doesn’t come naturally. Shaping: is the process of teaching a complex behaviour by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviour. (Shaping is gradually teaching behaviours by reinforcing successive approxiamations) ○ Ex: teaching lions to jump through hoops. ○ Start by reinforcing similar behaviours, then closer approximations, and then finally desired behaviour. ○ Each step builds on the previous one, linking new behaviours to earlier learned actions. Positive and Negative Reinforcers: Positive reinforcer: a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response. ○ EXAMPLES: ○ Positive reinforcement: Adding something desirable to increase behavior. ○ A student receives praise (reward) for completing their homework on time. ○ Employees earn bonuses for meeting sales targets.  Negative reinforcer: an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future. ○ EXAMPLES: ○ Negative reinforcer: Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior. ○ Pressing the snooze button stops the annoying alarm sound, encouraging snooze use in the future. ○ Wearing a seatbelt stops the car's beeping sound, reinforcing seatbelt use. Like positive reinforcers, negative reinforcers increase the likelihood that preceding behaviours will be repeated. Positive Punishment & Negative Punishment: Punishment: is a stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behaviour will occur again. ○ Positive punishment: application of an unpleasant stimulus decreases the frequency of certain behaviour. (positive = adding smth/ like adding “fines”.) Examples: A child is scolded for drawing on the walls, making them less likely to repeat the behavior. Receiving a speeding ticket discourages future speeding. ○ Negative punishment: the removal of a pleasant stimulus will decrease the frequency of behaviour. (negative = removing smth/ like losing privileges). Examples: A teenager loses their phone privileges for staying out past curfew. A child’s favorite toy is taken away after they refuse to clean up their room. The Pros and Cons of Punishment: Why Reinforcement Beats Punishment Punishment is often ineffective, especially if delayed or if the individual avoids the setting. It rarely leads to lasting behavior change and may promote the idea that aggression is acceptable. Reinforcing desired behavior is a more effective approach.  Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing Life’s Rewards Schedules of reinforcement: is the different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behaviour. ○ Continuous reinforcement schedule: reinforcing of a behaviour every time it occurs. ex. Working on an hourly based wage. ○ Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule: reinforcing of a behaviour some but not all of the time. ex. Working on a commission based wage. Partial reinforcement schedules can create stronger, longer-lasting responses than continuous reinforcement. (has 2 categories) 1. Ratio Schedules (based on response): ○ Fixed-Ratio: reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses. ○ Variable-Ratio: reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses, producing high response rates and strong resistance to extinction (e.g. gambling). 2. Interval Schedules (based on on time): ○ Fixed-Interval: reinforcement is given after a fixed time, leading to slower response rates. ○ Variable-Interval: time between reinforcement varies, producing steady responses and resistance to extinction. Why These Matter Variable schedules (both ratio and interval) keep people or animals responding more consistently because the reward is unpredictable. Discrimination and Generalization in Operant Conditioning: Stimulus control training: teaches discrimination by reinforcing behaviour only in the presence of a specific stimulus. Discriminative stimulus: signals when reinforcement is likely to follow a response. ○ Example: differentiating between friendliness and romantic interest based on non-verbal cues. Stimulus Generalization: occurs when a response learned for one stimulus is applied to similar stimuli. ○ Example: being polite in one situation leads to similar behaviours in others.  Negative consequences: generalization can sometimes result in harmful stereotypes, like negative behaviour toward a whole group after a single bad experience. Biological Constraints on Learning Definition: Built-in limits on an organism's ability to learn certain behaviors. Nature of Constraints: Some behaviors are easier to learn due to biological predispositions (e.g., pecking in pigeons), while others are difficult or impossible. ○ Example: A chicken can be taught to play the piano but not the guitar. Evolutionary Basis: Constraints align with survival needs, helping organisms quickly learn or avoid critical behaviors. ○ Example: Rapidly learning to avoid hot surfaces improves survival. Comparing Classical & Operant Conditioning: Aspects Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Basic Principle Builds associations Reinforcement increases between a conditioned behavior; punishment stimulus and response. decreases it. Nature of Behaviour Involuntary, innate, and Voluntary; organism elicited by stimuli. operates on the environment. Order of Events Stimulus → Response. Behavior → Consequence → Behavior increases/decreases. Examples 1. Classical Conditioning: ○ A child gets painful injections (unconditioned stimulus) that cause emotional distress (unconditioned response). ○ Later, seeing the doctor (conditioned stimulus) alone triggers distress (conditioned response). 2. Operant Conditioning: ○ A student who studies hard gets an A (positive reinforcement) and studies hard again.  ○ A student fails a test after partying (punishment) and avoids partying next time. Quick Tip Classical = Automatic Responses (before behavior happens). Operant = Choices and Consequences (after behavior happens). Cognitive Approaches to Learning: Cognitive learning theory: focuses on thought processes in learning; emphasizes higher-order processes like memory and information processing (e.g. learning to drive). ○ People develop expectations of reinforcement, not just stimulus-response links. Latent learning: learning occurs but isn’t demonstrated until there’s an incentive (e.g. using cognitive maps). Observational learning: learning by observing a model’s behaviour, crucial for skills unsuitable for trial-and-error (e.g. driving, surgery). Factors Influencing Imitation: ○ More likely to imitate rewarded models, ○ Less likely to imitate punished models. Bandura’s Four Steps of Observational Learning: 1. Attention: focus on critical features of behaviour. 2. Retention: remember the behaviour. 3. Reproduction: perform the action. 4. Motivation: be motivated to act. Violence in Media: Key Points Increased Aggression: High exposure to media violence makes viewers more likely to act aggressively. Lowered Inhibitions: Violent content reduces restraints against aggression. Distorted Perceptions: Media violence can make people misinterpret nonaggressive acts as aggressive. Desensitization: Repeated exposure reduces emotional responses to violence, making it seem normal or less repelling.