Psychology Past Paper PDF

**PSYCHOLOGY** **CHAPTER 11: MOTIVATION** Part A - Motivation **What is motivation?** Motivation is what makes us want to do things. It's a force that pushes us toward our goals, like studying to get good grades or practicing a sport to improve. **Motivation vs. Emotion** - [Motivation] is ab...

**PSYCHOLOGY** **CHAPTER 11: MOTIVATION** Part A - Motivation **What is motivation?** Motivation is what makes us want to do things. It's a force that pushes us toward our goals, like studying to get good grades or practicing a sport to improve. **Motivation vs. Emotion** - [Motivation] is about actions you take to reach a goal, like hunger making you want to eat - [Emotion], on the other hand, is a feeling you get, like being happy or sad. For example, anxiety is an emotion that might make you study harder. **Drive Reduction Theory** This theory says that when we need something, like water when we are thirsty, it creates a drive. Our body gets uncomfortable, so we act to fulfill the need (drink water) to feel balanced again. **Homeostasis** Homeostasis is your body's way of staying balanced. If you are too cold, you put on a jacket to get warm and feel better. It's about keeping things just right. **Incentive Theory** - Incentives are things that motivate us from the outside, like rewards. - [Intrinsic motivation] comes from inside, like doing art because you love it. - [Extrinsic motivation] is from outside, like doing chores to get an allowance. **Arousal Theory** This theory suggests that we work best when we are alert but not too excited or too bored. It's like finding the right balance of excitement for each task. **Need to belong** People need to feel close to others -- friends, family, teammates. This need makes us want to be around people, helping us feel safe and happy. **Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs** This theory says we have different level of needs, from basic (like food and shelter) to advanced (like creativity). First, we need to meet basic needs before moving on to things like friendship and goals. **Types of Love** 1. [Passionate love:] strong feelings of attraction 2. [Compassionate love:] deep friendship and caring **Achievement Motivation** This is our drive to reach goals, like getting better at sports or school. It can be: - [Approach goals:] Going after something positive - [Avoidance goals:] Avoiding something negative, like procrastination - [Self-efficacy:] Believing in your own ability to succeed at a task Part B -- Emotions **What are Emotions?** Emotions are like signals our brain and body give us in response to different situations. They are a mix of: - [Thoughts or feelings] we notice -- like feeling happy or scared - [Body reactions] -- like a fast heartbeat when scared - [Expressions] -- like smiling or frowning **Parts of Emotions** 1. [Thoughts and experiences:] Our mind interprets what happening around us 2. [Body reactions:] our body reacts automatically (e.g., muscles tighten when scared) 3. [Actions or expressions:] we show emotions through our faces or actions (like smiling when happy) **How Emotions Work in the Brain** Emotions, especially fear, take two main paths in the brain: - [Low Road (Quick Path):] A fast response without much thinking; it's automatic (e.g., jumping when hearing a sudden noise) - [High Road (Slow Path):] A slower, more thoughtful response where the brain processes information to understand the emotion better. **Types of Emotional Responses** [Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)] helps with automatic responses: - [Sympathetic:] Gets us ready for action (like running if we're scared) - [Parasympathetic:] Calms us down after stress **Theories of Emotion** 1. [James-Lange Theory:] First, our body reacts, then we feel the emotion (e.g., our heart races, and then we feel scared) 2. [Cannon-Bard Theory:] Body reactions and feelings happen at the same time (e.g., hearing a noise makes our heart race and feel scared simultaneously) 3. [Two-factor Theory:] Our emotions depend on how we label or interpret our physical reactions **(e.g., our heart races, and we decide if it's excitement or fear based on the situation)** **Culture and Emotions** Emotions are felt by everyone, but how we show them can vary by culture: - [Display Rules:] Different cultures have "rules" about when it's okay to show emotions. For example, in some cultures, people are encouraged to show happiness openly, while in other people might keep emotions more private. - [Emotional Dialects:] Even the way emotions look on our faces can vary slightly between cultures. **CHAPTER 14: HEALTH, STRESS AND COPING** **Health and Behavior** **What is Health?** Health isn't just about not being sick -- it's a balance of physical, mental, and social well-being. **[E.g. A person with no physical illness but who feels lonely or stressed might not be completely healthy. ]** Illness, on the other hand, means there's a problem in the body or mind, like a disease or injury. **Health-Related Quality of Life (HRQOL):** This looks at how well someone can live their life despite any challenges. - [Functioning:] Can they take care of themselves or do their daily tasks? - [Well-being:] How do they feel emotionally, in terms of energy, and in managing pain? **What is Health Psychology?** This field studies how our actions and decisions affect our health. **[E.g.] Smoking can cause cancer // Eating healthy and exercising improves heart health.** Health psychology also explains why unhealthy behaviors like smoking or overeating are hard to quit -- they often feel rewarding in the short term but harm us in the long run. **Approaches to Health** 1. [Biomedical Model:] Health Issues are purely biological, like bacteria causing infections. 2. [Biopsychosocial Model:] Adds psychological **(e.g. Stress)** and social factors **(e.g. relationships)** to the biological view. Most doctors use this approach today. 3. [Health Psychology:] Focuses on behaviors -- how stress, habits, and coping styles affect our health. [Acute conditions:] short-term, like a cold or a sprained ankle [Chronic conditions:] long-lasting, like diabetes or arthritis, often requiring long-term care **Lifestyle and Health** **Cancer:** Cancer is the leading cause of death in Canada. Some risks include: - Smoking and drinking too much alcohol. - Poor diets and lack of exercise. - Early or unsafe sexual behavior. Coping with cancer involves medical treatment and maintaining quality of life. **AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome):** AIDS, caused by HIV, weakens the immune system so the body can't fight infections. - No cure exists, but antiretroviral drugs help manage the disease. - Education and therapy can also support patients. **Smoking:** Delivers nicotine, which is highly addictive. - [Why people keep smoking:] it feels good (positive reinforcement) and reduces withdrawal symptoms (negative reinforcement). - Smoking causes lung cancer and heart disease. - Although cigarette smoking is decreasing, vaping is increasing, especially among youth. **Obesity:** Obesity affects about 27% of Canadians. - [Causes:] Genetics (50-90%), overeating, and lack of exercise. - [Health problems:] Diabetes, heart disease, joint pain, and certain cancers. Even small changes in diet and activity can make a big difference. **Alcohol Use:** Alcohol abuse is more common in men and has serious effects: - Damages the liver **(e.g. cirrhosis)** - Drinking during pregnancy harms the baby Alcoholism often results from a mix of genetic and environmental factors. **Psychosocial Influences on Health** [How does society affect health? ] 1. [Poverty:] Poorer people often have less access to healthcare and face stress from financial struggles, leading to worse health. 2. [Discrimination:] Experiencing unfair treatment increases stress, which can cause high blood pressure or unhealthy habits. **The Power of Social Connections** - Having close relationships improves health and lower risks - [Social Isolation (being lonely):] As harmful as smoking or being obese. - Married couples generally live longer, though marriage can also be stressful. **Social Contagion** We often Mimic the behaviors of people around us. For example: - Friends who overeat might influence us to do the same. - Social groups can also encourage healthier habits. **Stress and Illness** [What is Stress? ] Stress is the body's reaction to challenges or threats. It can be good or bad: - [Eustress:] A little stress can motivate us, like preparing for an exam - [Distress:] Too much stress can harm our body and mind **Stages of Stress (General Adaptation Syndrome -- GAS)** 1. [Alarm:] The body goes on high alert, releasing stress hormones to prepare for action. 2. [Resistance:] The body tries to adapt to the stress. 3. [Exhaustion:] Prolonged stress drains our energy, leading to health problems. **Stress Responses (The 4 Fs)** When facing stress, people react in four main ways: 1. [Fight:] Confront the challenge head-on 2. [Flight:] Run away from the problem 3. [Freeze:] Feel stuck and unable to act 4. [Fawn:] Try to please others to avoid conflict **Mechanics of Stress:** Stress activates the HPA axis, triggering the four Fs **Effects of Stress** [Short -- term stress:] Can motivate and prepare the body for challenges. [Chronic Stress: ] - Suppresses the immune system - Increases cardiovascular risks (hypertension, LDL, cholesterol) - Shortens telomeres (affects aging) **How does Stress Affect the body?** - Weakens the immune system, making us more prone to illness. - Increases the risk of heart disease and other problems - Long-term stress even damages our DNA (shortening telomeres) **PTSD (Post -- traumatic stress disorder)** - Happens after severe trauma, like an accident - Symptoms include flashbacks, avoiding triggers, and being constantly on edge - It's often linked to depression, anxiety, and substance abuse **Stress and the immune system** - Stress affects the immune system by: - Lowering B and T cell levels - Worsening autoimmune diseases - [Psychoneuroimmunology:] Studies the link between stress and immunity **Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)** - [Stress] is linked to risk factors for CHD, such as weight gain. - [Type A Personality:] Competitive, impatient, and easily, angered, increasing CHD risk **Appraising Stressors:** **Lazarus and Folkman's Model:** 1. [Primary Appraisal:] Assesses if the stressor is harmful, threatening, or challenging, 2. [Secondary Appraisal: Evaluate coping resources ] **Coping and Building Resilience** **Coping with stress** There are two ways to handle stress: [Problem-focused coping:] Directly solving the problem causing stress. **E.g. Studying to reduce anxiety** [Emotion-focused coping:] Managing how we feel about the stress, like meditating or talking to a friend **What Helps us Cope?** - [Optimism:] Staying positive can reduce stress and illness. - [Social Support:] Having friends or family to lean on improves emotional health. **Healthy Habits** - Regular exercise strengthens the body and lowers stress - Mediation and relaxation techniques calm the mind **Resilience** Resilience is the ability to bounce back from challenges. It's not something we're born with -- it can be developed through practice. - Resilient people find meaning in difficulties and use optimism, support, and persistence to overcome the difficulties. **Post -- Traumatic Growth (PTG)** This is when a person grows stronger after trauma, experiencing: 1. Better relationships 2. New Opportunities 3. More appreciation for life 4. Inner Strength 5. Spiritual growth **Lifestyle and Health** [Exercise:] At least 2.5 hours of activity like walking or swimming each week is recommended. It improves muscle strength, heart health, and bone density, [Meditation and Relaxation:] practices like mindfulness help reduce stress and improve focus **CHAPTER 15: MENTAL HEALTH** Part 1 **Psychopathology -- Abnormal Psychology** Psychopathology is the study of mental illness and abnormal behavior, often described as **maladaptive behavior** (behavior that doesn't help someone adjust to their environment). [Key Concept: ] - **Statistical rarity:** Behaviors that are uncommon - **Subjective distress:** Personal suffering or discomfort - **Impairment:** Difficulty functioning in daily life - **Societal disapproval:** Actions frowned upon by society - **Biological dysfunction:** Underlying physical or neurological causes **Maladaptive Behavior:** Actions or tendencies that hinder a person's ability to adjust to situations or environments effectively. [Key characteristics: ] 1. [Ineffective Coping:] Maladaptive behaviors are typically poor strategies for dealing with stress, challenges, or changes. 2. [Interference with functioning:] These behaviors can disrupt important areas of life, like relationships, work, or health. 3. [Persistence:] They often persist even when they cause problems or harm the individual. [Examples:] Heavy drug use, Risky behaviors, emotional avoidance etc. **Diagnosis:** It is the process of identifying diseases based on symptoms. This structured method stems from the medical model and helps professionals design effective treatments. **Mental illness and the medical model** Mental illness affects a large portion of the population: - [Globally:] Nearly half of the population is impacted - [In Canada: ] - 1 in 5 people experience mental illness yearly - 1 in 2 Canadians face mental health issues by age 40 - Only 20% of children receive appropriate mental health care - Chronic conditions like diabetes and asthma often co-occur with mental illness **The DSM: Historical background** The DSM evolved to meet the growing need for mental health classification: - [Before WWII:] Psychiatry focused on institutional care with no need for detailed classifications - [Post-WWII:] The DSM -- 1 (1952) introduced 128 mental disorders, mainly for inpatient use. It was only 132 pages long - Over time, new editions refined and expanded the manual: - DSM-II (1968), DSM-II (1980), DSM-IV (1994), and the current DSM-5-TR (2013) **The DSM-5-TR** The DSM-5-TR is now a detailed guide with: - [541 diagnostic categories] over 947 pages. - Guidelines to distinguish psychological from physical disorders ("think organic"). - A biopsychosocial perspective that considers biological, psychological, and social factors. - Prevalence data, showing how common each disorder is. **Prevalence of Mental Illness in Canada** Mental illness affects many Canadians: - [Mood disorders:] 4.1-4.6% (e.g., depression, bipolar disorder) - [Anxiety disorders:] 12.2%, the most common **Defining Mental Disorders in DSM-5** A mental disorder involves significant disruptions in: - **Cognition, emotions, or behavior**, caused by dysfunctions in mental processes. - It must cause significant distress or impair daily life. - Responses to normal life stress (e.g., grief) or socially deviant behavior (e.g., political or religious differences) are **not considered disorders** unless linked to dysfunction. **Critiques of the DSM and Mental Health Language** The DSM's medical approach has consequences: - It stigmatizes and isolates individuals by labeling them as "ill" or "abnormal." - The language of mental illness influences how people view themselves and their families, sometimes harming self-confidence and relationships. - However, it can also provide a framework for understanding and support. **Assessment Beyond the Medical Model** Traditional assessments focus on "what's wrong" with individuals. A broader approach considers: - Strengths and local knowledge. - Dynamic, ongoing assessments that account for personal narratives and contexts. - This shift emphasizes holistic therapeutic interventions. **Psychological Diagnoses in the Classroom** **ADHD**: - Diagnosed when individuals display at least six symptoms of inattention or hyperactivity. - The inclusion of ADHD in the DSM-III (1980) led to a dramatic increase in diagnoses, raising concerns about overdiagnosis. **Psychological Diagnoses in the Courtroom** Mental health plays a role in legal contexts: 1. **Mental Disorder Defense**: - Argues that individuals can't be held responsible if they didn't understand their actions or their wrongness due to mental illness. - Rarely used (\