Psychology Concepts, Unit 1 Lesson 2 PDF

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Unit 1 Lesson 2 THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY. MAJOR MODERN APPROACHES CAN YOU DO THE FOLLOWING? In this unit you are required to have an appreciation of the different...

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Unit 1 Lesson 2 THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY. MAJOR MODERN APPROACHES CAN YOU DO THE FOLLOWING? In this unit you are required to have an appreciation of the different 1. Define and use relevant definitions relating to approaches or perspectives from which psychologists operate, and what psychology they have contributed to the study of psychology. Six major approaches to the study of psychology have developed, each with a different focus. 2. Examine the concepts of structuralism vs Functionalism and Gestalt Psychology These are: 3. Identify the six major approaches to the study of 1. Behaviorism psychology 2. Cognitive 4. Differentiate among the various 3. Psychodynamic /Psychoanalytical Approach approaches 4. Psychosocial 5. Humanistic 6. Evolutionary NB. Biological (Covered in Unit 2) Dr Kendra Cherry wrote the article Structuralism and Functionalism Schools of Thought, published in the Verywell Online Journal, and medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD. Updated on May 16, 2020 The Origins of Psychology Structuralism emerged as the first school of thought and some of the ideas associated with the structuralist school were advocated by the founder of the first experimental psychology lab, Wilhelm Wundt. One of Wundt's students, a man named Edward B. Titchener, would later go on to formally establish and name structuralism, although he broke away from many of Wundt's ideas and at times even misrepresented the teachings of his mentor. Almost immediately other theories surfaced to vie for dominance in psychology. In response to structuralism, an American perspective known as functionalism emerged from thinkers such as Charles Darwin and William James. In order to understand how these early schools of thought influenced the course of psychology, let's take a closer look at each one. What Was Structuralism? Structuralism was the first school of psychology and focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Researchers tried to understand the basic elements of consciousness using a method known as introspection. Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of the first experimental psychology lab, is often associated with this school of thought. However, Wundt referred to his view of psychology as voluntarism. It was his student, Edward B. Titchener, who coined the term structuralism. Wundt's theories tended to be much more holistic than the ideas that Titchener later introduced in the United States. While Wundt's work helped to establish psychology as a separate science and contributed methods to experimental psychology, Titchener's development of structuralism helped establish the very first "school" of psychology. Structuralism itself did not last long beyond Titchener's death. Strengths and Criticisms of Structuralism By today’s scientific standards, the experimental methods used to study the structures of the mind were too subjective—the use of introspection led to a lack of reliability in results. Other critics argue that structuralism was too concerned with internal behavior, which is not directly observable and cannot be accurately measured. However, these critiques do not mean that structuralism lacked significance. Structuralism is important because it is the first major school of thought in psychology. The structuralist school also influenced the development of experimental psychology. What Was Functionalism? Functionalism formed as a reaction to structuralism and was heavily influenced by the work of William James and the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. Functionalists sought to explain the mental processes in a more systematic and accurate manner. Rather than focusing on the elements of consciousness, functionalists focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior. Functionalism also emphasized individual differences, which had a profound impact on education. Some of the important functionalist thinkers included William James, John Dewey, Harvey Carr, and John Angell. Strengths and Criticisms of Functionalism Functionalism was criticized perhaps most famously by Wundt. "It is literature. It is beautiful, but it is not psychology," he said of functionalist William James’ book The Principles of Psychology. Functionalism was an important influence on psychology. It influenced the development of behaviorism and applied psychology. Functionalism also influenced the educational system, especially with regards to John Dewey’s belief that children should learn at the level for which they are developmentally prepared. I. BEHAVIORISM “Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior.” (Andrade, 2018) Key Takeaways: Behaviorism (Alane, 2020) Behaviorism is the theory that human or animal psychology can be objectively studied through observable actions (behaviors), rather than thoughts and feelings that cannot be observed. Behaviorism’s influential figures include the psychologists John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, who are associated with classical conditioning and operant conditioning, respectively. In classical conditioning, an animal or human learns to associate two stimuli with each other. This type of conditioning involves involuntary responses, such as biological responses or emotional ones. In operant conditioning, an animal or human learns a behavior by associating it with consequences. This can be done through positive or negative reinforcement, or punishment. Behaviorists believe humans learn behaviors through conditioning, which associates a stimulus in the environment, such as a sound, to a response, such as what a human does when they hear that sound. Key studies in behaviorism demonstrate the difference between two types of conditioning: classical conditioning, which is associated with psychologists like Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson, and operant conditioning, associated with B.F. Skinner. Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Dogs The Pavlov’s dogs experiment is a widely known experiment involving dogs, meat, and the sound of a bell. At the start of the experiment, dogs would be presented meat, which would cause them to salivate. When they heard a bell, however, they did not. For the next step in the experiment, the dogs heard a bell before they were brought food. Over time, the dogs learned that a ringing bell meant food, so they would begin to salivate when they heard the bell— even though they didn’t react to the bells before. Through this experiment, the dogs gradually learned to associate the sounds of a bell with food, even though they didn’t react to the bells before. The Pavlov’s dogs experiment demonstrates classical conditioning: the process by which an animal or human learns to associate two previously unrelated stimuli with each other. Pavlov's dogs learned to associate the response to one stimulus (salivating at the smell of food) with a “neutral” stimulus that previously did not evoke a response (the ringing of a bell.) This type of conditioning involves involuntary responses. Classical Conditioning: Little Albert In another experiment that showed the classical conditioning of emotions in humans, the psychologist J.B. Watson and his graduate student Rosalie Rayner exposed a 9-month-old child, whom they called “Little Albert,” to a white rat and other furry animals, like a rabbit and a dog, as well as to cotton, wool, burning newspapers, and other stimuli—all of which did not frighten Albert. Later, however, Albert was allowed to play with a white lab rat. Watson and Rayner then made a loud sound with a hammer, which frightened Albert and made him cry. After repeating this several times, Albert became very distressed when he was presented with only the white rat. This showed that he had learned to associate his response (becoming afraid and crying) to another stimulus that had not frightened him before. Operant Conditioning: Skinner Boxes Psychologist B.F. Skinner placed a hungry rat in a box containing a lever. As the rat moved around the box, it would occasionally press the lever, consequently discovering that food would drop when the lever was pressed. After some time, the rat began running straight toward the lever when it was placed inside the box, suggesting that the rat had figured out that the lever meant it would get food. In a similar experiment, a rat was placed inside a Skinner box with an electrified floor, causing the rat discomfort. The rat found out that pressing the lever stopped the electric current. After some time, the rat figured out that the lever would mean that it would no longer be subject to an electric current, and the rat began running straight toward the lever when it was placed inside the box. The Skinner box experiment demonstrates operant conditioning, in which an animal or human learns a behavior (e.g. pressing a lever) by associating it with consequences (e.g. dropping a food pellet or stopping an electric current.) The three types of reinforcement are as follows: Positive reinforcement: When something good is added (e.g. a food pellet drops into the box) to teach a new behavior. Negative reinforcement: When something bad is removed (e.g. an electric current stops) to teach a new behavior. Punishment: When something bad is added to teach the subject to stop a behavior. JOHN WATSON (1878-1958) is the father of Behaviorism: - i.e., of those who consider psychology to be “the study of behavior and NOT that of mental processes”. Watson felt that psychology should limit itself to the study of observable, measurable events such as was done in science subjects such as chemistry, physics etc… Observable behavior includes such activities as pressing a lever, turning left or right, eating and mating, even involuntary body functions such as heart rate, dilation of the pupils of the eye, blood pressure and emission of brain waves. They can be measured by observation or by laboratory instruments and observers would readily agree about their existence and features. Watson was influenced by the work of Pavlov, but he is best known for his views on behavior modification or better said, manipulation. Watson claimed that psychology was not concerned with the mind or with human consciousness. Instead, psychology would be concerned only with behavior – how one responds to a stimulus when it is presented. In this way, men could be studied objectively, like rats and apes. His work was based on the experiments of Ivan Pavlov, who had studied animals' responses to conditioning. Watson was later to emphasize, that humans react to stimuli in the same way. His experiment with Little Albert proved that children can learn to demonstrate different emotions towards an external stimulus if they have been taught to associate that stimulus with a particular experience.. Albert learned to fear all furry objects and in particular the white rat after being exposed to it in conjunction with a loud noise which scared him. Classical conditioning states that learned behavior can be made “extinct” if the stimulation is ceased for a long time. Watson was the extreme behaviorist. He claimed: “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and by own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors”.  II. COGNITIVE APPROACH. (www.ryerson.ca/~glassman/cognitiv.html) “The cognitive approach focuses on how we process, store, and use information and how this information influences what we attend to, perceive, learn, remember, believe, and feel" Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that examines “internal mental processes” such as problem solving, memory, perception, knowledge representation and language and to some extent motivation and emotion. They are interested in how people understand, diagnose, solve problems, reason, and are creative. They concern themselves with the mental processes which mediate between “stimulus and response”. The term “Cognitive” psychology came into use with the publication of the book Cognitive Psychology by Ulric Neisser in 1967. Cognitive theory maintains that how one thinks largely determines how one feels and behaves. Modern cognitive psychologists have revisited the views of Structuralists, Functionalists and Gestalts.. However, they do not use “Introspection“ as a method of study. Behaviorism removed the emphasis from the mind, but modern technological inventions, the analogy between the mind and the computer which recieves, stores and processes data – comparing, combining, rearranging and transforming it - these have again raised the interest of psychologists in internal mental processes. They see a similarity between the mind storing, processing and retrieving information and translating it into behavior. For them „mental processes“ can be studied objectively by focusing on the behaviors that they produce. For example, studying personality from a cognitive perspective one will look at the idea that people are who they are because of the way they think, including how information is attended to, perceived, analyzed, interpreted, encoded and retrieved. People tend to have habitual thinking patterns which are characterized as “personality”. Your personality, then, would be your characteristic cognitive patterns. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT – JEAN PIAGET Piaget believed that all children pass through the stages below. Piaget’s theory proposes 4 stages of cognitive (mind and thought) development. These are : Stage Age Chief Characteristics 1. Sensorimotor Birth – 2 years Learn by experiencing through our senses, and by moving around, whether in crib, creeping or walking. 2. Preoperational 2-7 years Use of symbols to represent objects internally e.g. language, symbolic play, egocentric. 3. Concrete Operations 7-11 As physical experience accumulates, the child starts to conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences. Abstract problem solving is also possible at this stage. For example, arithmetic equations can be solved with numbers, not just with objects. 4. Formal Operations 11 + Development of abstract and hypothetical reasoning III. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH - SIGMUND FREUD Psychodynamic approach versus psychoanalysis The term “psychodynamic” refers to a wide group of theories that emphasize the overriding influence of instinctive drives and forces that operate in the unconscious and preconscious and the importance of developmental experiences in shaping personality. Sigmund Freud was responsible for the development of this approach, but others such as Eric Erikson, Carl Jung, Karen Horney and Anna Freud, his daughter followed in that approach but made modifications of their own. Early in their development, these theories focused solely on the influence of unconscious drives and forces, but they received much criticism and subsequent revision. Most recent psychodynamic theory places greater emphasis on conscious experience and its interaction with the unconscious than Freud did. In addition, they recognize the role that social factors play in development. Psychodynamic theories are in basic agreement that the study of human behavior should include factors such as internal processes, personality, motivation and drives, and the importance of childhood experiences. Classic theories about the role of the unconscious sexual and aggressive drives have, in recent times,been re-evaluated to focus on “conscious experience”, resulting in, for example, the birth of ego psychology. The key concepts of Freud’s psychodynamic theory include: 1. Primarily concerned with internal psychological processes – how the id is formed, what happens to aggressive, sexual and frustrated feelings, what effect does these feelings have on personal development. 2. Importance of early childhood experiences 3. Existence of unconscious motivation – we are spurred on by desires that we really don’t know about consciously 4. Existence of ego (rationality) & superego (morality) 5. Existence of defense mechanisms The psychodynamic approach focuses on how internal conflicts, desires and urges change from minute to minute in intensity and number and what is responsible for this dynamic seething caldron of ideas under the surface of our consciousness. It is not to be confused with psychoanalysis. Wikipedia says that Psychoanalysis is a family of psychological theories, therapies and methods based on the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud used to help disturbed persons. As a technique of psychotherapy, psychoanalysis seeks to discover connections among the unconscious components of patients' mental processes. The analyst's goal is to help liberate the patient from unexamined or unconscious barriers of transference and resistance. This means that a person’s behavior may be bound by past experiences and they may transfer some of these behaviors from childhood that are inappropriate for adults and inhibit freedom. The psychoanalyst will help him or her to move on and develop more appropriate and mature behaviors. SIGMUND FREUD was the founder of this psychodynamic school of psychology which is very different from all the others. Freud believed that all behavior and mental processes are influenced by our hidden drives and impulses: aggression and sexual urges. These include the following psychic structures: the id, the ego and the superego. Freud believed that the id which resides deep in one’s unconscious realm is responsible for the natural instincts of aggression and sexual urges. These demand instant gratification and are said to operate on the “pleasure principle”. The desires of the id, however, are restrained by the ego which operates on the “reality principle” and represents the values of society and parents. The ego reminds the individual that in reality one cannot be instantly gratified by doing exactly what they want, but must do what society sanctions. The ego, then, develops both consciously and unconsciously. He felt that in addition to the work of the ego in controlling our actions, the superego seeks to restrain the id by referring the individual to what is right and wrong. The Taken from: http://college.hmco.com/psychology/seifert/lifespan_dev/ 2e/instructors/downloads/ch02.ppt superego develops from the morals taught by parents, church and school, and from a knowledge of the laws of the land. It joins the ego in helping to control the id – and these then become part of the unconscious realm of the mind. A further look at the illustration above shows us Freud’s views on the unconscious, the preconscious and the conscious. For him the unconscious is a part of our personality that exists but we really don’t know what happens in it… however it is responsible for producing these urges of the id to be aggressive and to fulfill sexual desires. He believed that the various frustrations experienced from birth onward get repressed into the unconscious and produce these id urges. He believed also that we have an area of preconsciousness. The preconscious part of the psyche consists of the thoughts, memories, and knowledge that you are not currently aware of, but that are available to you. It's your storehouse of memories and knowledge. Finally, there is the conscious part of the psyche which is that part which one is currently aware of or is actively thinking about. It consists of all the thoughts that presently occupy one’s mind. Tara Kuther in http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/developmental_psychology/78926 made the following observation: Freud's most unique contribution towards understanding the psyche is the idea that part of our psyche is unconscious, or outside of our awareness. Freud proposed that the unconscious is a part of our psyche that we do not have access to. It holds thoughts, memories, impulses that we are not aware of and that we cannot be aware of because they may be potentially damaging to us (i.e., cause anxiety). Even though we are not aware of the contents of our unconscious, Freud proposed that the impulses and drives within it cause much of our behavior. Freud felt that any verbal slip (Freudian slip) or dream was a manifestation of hidden or unconscious wishes, and all observable behavior can be interpreted as attempts to satisfy the seething caldron of conflicting urges, impulses and wishes. For Freud the id resides in this unconscious zone, and unconsciously prompts behavior. Finally, Freud also says that all have an “eros” or a determination to live but this is balanced by the “Thanatos” or death wish that impels us to do destructive things. The “libido” which all possess is the energy created by the Id that impels us to action. (In today’s dictionary, the libido is often described as the sex urge”. Personality for Freud, was the dynamic interaction of all the forces explained above. Psychoanalysis Freud also developed a theory which is referred to as the “psychoanalytical theory” as the method of psychotherapy by which patients are helped to gain insight into their unconscious realm and translate some of their negative urges into socially acceptable behavior. This is called “psychoanalysis”. Although psychoanalysis began as a tool for ameliorating emotional suffering, it is not only a therapy. It is, in addition, a method for learning about the mind, and also a theory, a way of understanding the processes of normal everyday mental functioning. Freud believed that the psychosexual stages of normal development from infancy onward affect the personality of the adult individual and an analysis of this development process can allow one to gain greater insight into the functioning of the human mind. Depression-guide.com describes psychoanalysis as: A therapeutic technique for the treatment of neurosis. A technique used to train psychoanalysts. A basic requirement of psychoanalytic training is to undergo a successful analysis. A scientific technique of critical observation. A body of knowledge acquired by using this basic method of quiet critical observation and study of individual patients and other events e.g. Carl Jung, Alfred Adler , Wilhelm Reich, Melanie Klein, Wilfred Bion, Jacques Lacan, and many others A clinical theory A movement, particularly as led by Freud, to secure and defend acceptance of the theories and techniques. particularly as led by Freud, to secure and defend acceptance of the theories and techniques. Techniques used in psychoanalysis. Catharsis. Freud helped his patients to gain insights into their own unconscious self by using a therapy called “catharsis” or inner cleansing. By inducing clients to talk about their childhood and seek for experiences that might have created problems in the adult personality, he was able to bring assistance to many clients with abnormal behaviors. “Free association” is another technique used by Freud. This is where, lying on a couch (a position imposing a certain state of relaxation), the patient speaks freely of anything that may cross his/her mind, without searching for something specific, a subject or topic. The flow of his/her thoughts is free, and followed with no voluntary intervention. The important thing is that the critical mind does not intervene to censor spontaneous thoughts. Freud believed that this free talk would give the therapist insights as to the real person and the real problems being experienced by him or her..It is the therapist’s job to interpret this free talk. Dream Interpretation. Freud also believed strongly that dreams are manifestations of the unconscious and should be taken seriously and analyzed for clues regarding personality. Freudian slips of the tongue also have this function. Other psychoanalytical psychologists include Carl Jung and Adler about whom you can do your own research. The psychoanalytical approach has had many detractors and many believe that it cannot be proven scientifically and so it does not make sense, but Freud has had a huge impact on psychology and also on the world in general. Again, you will learn more about him in Chapter 3. CARL JUNG Jung was at first a follower of Sigmund Freud. Later he became more organized about his theoretical approach, broke from psychodynamic theories, and formed his own theory under the name "Analytical Psychology." Jung believed the human psyche exists in three parts: the ego (the conscious mind), the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious. Jung believed the collective unconscious was a reservoir of all the experience and knowledge of the human species. His concepts of introversion and extroversion have contributed to personality psychology and also influenced psychotherapy. His advice to a patient suffering from alcoholism led to the formation of Alcoholics Anonymous, which has helped millions of people suffering from alcohol dependence. IV. PSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH – ERIK ERIKSON The psychosocial approach to psychology believes that the person you are today is also a result of the experiences through which you pass as you go through the psycho-social stages. Erikson is often classified as a psychodynamic psychologist since he too believed in the id, ego and superego, but in recent times we see the development of the psychosocial approach of which Erickson is said to be the father. For Erikson, there are 8 stages in development: 1. Trust vs. Infancy (Birth – ½) By experiences with care givers a child develops Mistrust either trust or mistrust of others. 2. Autonomy vs. Toddler (1-2) If a child is allowed to do things for himself he Shame develops normally, if he is always helped and coddled, he develops shame and shyness 3. Initiative vs. Early Childhood Initiative is planning and carrying out your plans. Guilt (2-6) If not allowed to do this a child will always feel guilty 4. Industry vs. Elementary/Middle Child is naturally anxious to learn, but if not Inferiority School (6-12) allowed will feel inferior 5. Identity vs. Adolescence (12- Socially healthy teenagers will find their identify, Role 18) others will be confuses Confusion 6. Intimacy vs. Young Adulthood Intimacy is achievable if one is socially well Isolation (19-40) developed, if not one will seek isolation. 7. Generativity vs. Middle Adulthood Care for others and contributing to society is the Stagnation (40- 65) focus of a healthy person. Self-centeredness and fear of the future characterizes a stagnant person  8. Integrity vs. Late Adulthood Achievement of satisfaction, wisdom and a wealth Despair (65-death) of experience characterize the Ego Integrity phase while fear of death and regrets about the past haunt the “despairers.” These stages will be explored in Chapter 3, but suffice it to say, this theory purports the need for persons to be well adjusted socially, and suggests that personality and other disorders will result where proper development has not taken place. These views are commonplace to us today, but were new when Erikson reported them. Can you see how such a theory might be relevant in Jamaica to explain why there are so many young men on the roadside, and so much violence in our land? V. HUMANISTIC APPROACH – ABRAHAM MASLOW and CARL ROGERS Throughout history many individuals and groups have affirmed the inherent value and dignity of human beings. The Humanistic Approach began in response to concerns by therapists against perceived limitations of Psychodynamic theories, especially Freud’s psychoanalysis theory. Humanists believe that self- awareness, experience and choice permit us to “invent ourselves”. They rejected ideas of determinism which meant that man must stay in the station in which he is born. Humanists emphasized that man must be free to make choices which ever way he pleases and he or she must continue to grow until one is totally “self actualized”, or becomes a “fully functioning person”. The leaders of this movement felt that existing psychodynamic and behavioral theories failed to adequately address issues like the “meaning of behavior”, and the nature of healthy growth. The goal of life, for them, should always be to achieve personal growth and understanding. Only through self-improvement and self- knowledge can one truly be happy. The Humanist approach was not simply a new variation on the psychodynamic theory, but rather a fundamentally new school of thought. Humanism did not stick in the realm of psychology. Writers, scientists, social workers all took part in the new way of thinking (the first Humanistic Psychology conference took place in 1961) to the extent that today much of our own thinking is colored with Humanistic ideas. Proponents of the Humanistic Perspective are: Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow CARL ROGERS – focus on the fully functioning person. Positive Self Concept Choice Unconditional Positive Regard Personal Growth Valuing Oneself Rogers believed that psychology should not deal only with disturbed individuals. He invented different methods of therapy which opened a whole new world of psychological study. The aim of these therapies was to fostering healthy growth. Through a process Rogers called “Person-centered Therapy”, the therapist seeks to provide empathy, openness, and unconditional positive regard. Roger’s theory of “Self” or the “Self Concept” required persons to look deeply into oneself to determine who they are and what they believe. This week the crisis in Russia brought calls for psychologists specializing in helping children to deal with trauma (the shooting at a school in Moscow). Further information on Carl Roger’s theory of personality will be examined in chapter 5. The Humanistic view of the development of personality emphasizes the fact that persons who have been free of what they called “conditions of worth”, grow up to be normal well balanced children. ABRAHAM MASLOW - focus on self- actualization. Maslow believed in the worth of people and that each individual is capable of reaching a state of self- actualization where he or she is satisfied with him/herself and his/her accomplishments. His contribution to Humanism is in his belief that self- actualization is the highest state of man. For him, persons seek to self-actualize and are capable to achieving this state wherever they are in society. As a psychologist, Maslow is less well recognized than Rogers. However, we are very familiar with his name in relation to his motivation theory which has become an established area of study for all Business Students. The illustration on the right shows Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. These, he says, are the motivational steps that must be taken before one can achieve self-actualization, or the sense of satisfaction felt where there is nothing more to be achieved. One is then characterized by the ability to relate to others, to be happy, harmonious etc…(as described above). Prior to achieving this satisfaction, one must go through each of the steps in the pyramid, satisfying each before one moves on to the next. Maslow’s theory of motivation has been questioned and refuted by psychologists who say that it is not necessary to fully achieve each step before moving on to the next, or who question the concept of self- actualization, and whether anyone every achieves this. Others also question whether one is really motivated by the needs that we experience or rather by the expected rewards that we envisage. Regardless, Maslow’s hierarchy is very famous, and all students are expected to understand it clearly and to think about how it related to persons in Jamaica. There are other Humanistic psychologists, but Rogers and Maslow began the movement of freeing man from the demands of religion, society and family and encouraging individualism, independent thinking, and personal choice.