Attitude, Value and Motivation PDF

Unit-3 Attitude, Value and Motivation 1  Attitudes: Sources and types of attitudes Attitude formation and change Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Effects of employee attitude, Job related attitudes Values: meaning, importance, source and types...

Unit-3 Attitude, Value and Motivation 1  Attitudes: Sources and types of attitudes Attitude formation and change Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Effects of employee attitude, Job related attitudes Values: meaning, importance, source and types, and applications in organizations. Motivation: Meaning, process and significance of motivation Early Theories of motivation: Hierarchy of Needs, Theory X Theory Y, Two Factor theory, McClelland Theory of Needs Contemporary Theories of Motivation: Goal Setting theory, Self Efficacy theory, Equity theory/Organizational justice, Expectancy theories. 2 3  Introduction Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgements concerning objects, people or events. They reflect how you feel about something. Attitudes are often the result of experience or upbringing. They can have a powerful influence over behavior and affect how people act in various situations. While attitudes are enduring, they can also 4 change.  Definition According to Gordon Allport, “An attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the 5 individual’s Components of Attitudes There are three components of attitude (also called ABCs of attitude) i. Cognitive component: The opinion or belief segment of an attitude Eg: My pay is low ii. Affective component: The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude. Eg: I am angry that my pay is low. iii. Behavioral component: An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something. Eg: I am going to look for another job that pays better. 6 7 8 Factors Influencing Attitude Formation Social Factors Social roles and social norms can have a strong influence on attitudes. Social roles relate to how people are expected to behave in a particular role or context. Social norms involve society's rules for what behaviors are considered appropriate. 9 Factors Influencing Attitude Formation Learning Attitudes can be learned in a variety of ways. Classical Conditioning. Consider how advertisers use classical conditioning to influence your attitude toward a particular product. In a television commercial, you see young, beautiful people having fun on a tropical beach while enjoying a sports drink. This attractive and appealing imagery causes you to develop a positive association with this particular beverage. 10 Factors Influencing Attitude Formation Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning can also be used to influence how attitudes develop. Imagine a young man who has just started smoking. Whenever he lights up a cigarette, people complain, chastise him, and ask him to leave their vicinity. This negative feedback from those around him eventually causes him to develop an unfavorable opinion of smoking and he decides to give up the habit. 11 Factors Influencing Attitude Formation Observation Finally, people also learn attitudes by observing people around them. When someone you admire greatly espouses a particular attitude, you are more likely to develop the same beliefs. For example, children spend a great deal of time observing the attitudes of their parents and usually begin to demonstrate similar outlooks. 12 Functions of Attitude 13 14 Knowledge Function Attitudes help organize and simplify information processing. People use attitudes to make sense of the complex world around them. Attitudes allow individuals to quickly categorize objects, people, and events, helping them navigate their environment efficiently. Example: A person who has a positive attitude toward environmental conservation may quickly support policies related to sustainability without needing to process every new piece of information in detail. 15 Ego-Defensive Function Attitudes protect individuals from acknowledging unpleasant truths or insecurities. This function serves to defend the self from uncomfortable realities, threats, or inner conflicts by shaping attitudes that justify one's actions or feelings. Example: Someone with low self-esteem might develop negative attitudes toward groups they perceive as more successful or threatening, helping them maintain their self- worth. 16 Value-Expressive Function Attitudes reflect an individual’s central values and beliefs, allowing expression of core identities. Attitudes linked to deeply held values help people communicate and affirm who they are and what they stand for. These attitudes allow individuals to express their self-concept to others. Example: A person who values equality may hold strong attitudes in support of social justice movements, using their stance to express their identity as someone who cares deeply about fairness and human rights. 17 Adjustive Function Attitudes help individuals fit into social groups and form relationships. People often develop attitudes that help them gain approval from others, facilitating social interaction and group cohesion. These attitudes can foster social acceptance or strengthen relationships with like-minded individuals. Example: A teenager might adopt a positive attitude toward a certain type of music or fashion style to align with their peer group. 18  Why Attitudes Change Learning Theory Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning can be used to bring about attitude change. Classical conditioning can be used to create positive emotional reactions to an object, person, or event by associating positive feelings with the target object. Operant conditioning can be used to strengthen desirable attitudes and weaken undesirable ones. People can also change their attitudes after observing the behavior of others. 19  Why Attitudes Change Elaboration Likelihood Theory This theory of persuasion suggests that people can alter their attitudes in two ways. First, they can be motivated to listen and think about the message, thus leading to an attitude shift. They might be influenced by the likable characteristics of the speaker (peripheral route persuasion), leading to a temporary or surface shift in attitude. 20  Why Attitudes Change Cognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive dissonance: Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between attitude and behavior. In some cases, people may alter their attitudes to better align them with their current behaviors. In order to reduce the tension created by these incompatible beliefs, people often shift their attitudes. 21 22  Conclusion  Understanding where these attitudes come from and how they sometimes change can help you look for ways to improve your attitudes, whether it means adopting a more positive outlook on life or changing your opinion based on new information. 23 Job Attitudes There are many attitudes, but OB only focuses on the attitudes that form positive or negative evaluations that employee hold about their work environment. Most important are job satisfaction, job involvement and organization commitment. Other which are important are perceived organizational support and employee engagement. 24  Job Satisfaction: A positive feeling about one’s job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. Related to job satisfaction is job involvement. Job Involvement: The degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it, and considers performance important to self-worth. 25  Another closely related concept is psychological empowerment. Psychological Empowerment: Employees’ belief in the degree to which they affect their work environment, their competence, the meaningfulness of their job and their autonomy. 26  Organizational Commitment: The degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. Perceived Organizational Support (POS): The degree to which employees believe an organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being. POS is important in countries where the power distance, the degree to which people in a country accept that power in institution and organizations is distributed unequally, is lower. In low power distance countries, people more likely to view work as an exchange than as a moral obligation. 27  Employee Engagement: The degree of enthusiasm an employee feels for the job. Researches have found out that organization whose employee engagement is high to average have higher level of customer satisfaction, more productive, have higher profits, and experience lower turnover and accidents. 28  Are These Job Attitudes All that Distinct: Evidence suggest that these attitudes are highly related, perhaps to a confusing degree. There are some distinctiveness among attitudes, but they overlap greatly for various reasons, including employees; personality. Generally, if you know the job satisfaction, you know most of what you need to know about how that person sees the organization. 29 VALUES Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end state of existence. Values carry a judgmental element that carry an individual’s idea about what is right, good or desirable. Values have both content and intensity attribute. Content attribute says mode of conduct or end-state is important. Intensity attributes specifies how important. When we rank values in terms of intensity, we obtain value system. A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their intensity is known as value system. 30  Values tend to be relatively stable If we question our values, they may change, but more often they are reinforced. There is link between personality and values meaning that values may be genetically transmitted traits. 31 The importance and Organization of Values Values lay foundation for understanding attitudes and motivation. They also influence our perception. Our values affect our behaviors and attitudes at work. 32 Terminal versus Instrumental Values Desirable end states of existence; the goals a person would like to achieve during their lifetime are known as terminal values. Eg: Freedom, Prosperity, Economic Success. Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s terminal values are known as instrumental values. Eg: Self-improvement, Personal discipline, Ambition. RVS (Rokeach Value Survey): Milton Rokeach created the RVS. It contains two set of values that are terminal and instrumental values, each have 18 values in them. Studies confirm that RVS varies among groups. People in the same occupation or categories tend to have similar values. The next figure gives the RVS of Executive, union members and Activist. 33 34 Generational Values Values do change over generations, and we can gain some useful insights from analyzing values by contempered work cohorts. Researchers have integrated several analyses of work values into groups that attempt to capture the shared views of different cohorts. 35 36 Cultural Values Values are learned, they are passed down through generations and vary by culture. Two frameworks for values have emerged 1. Hofstede’s Framework 2. Globe Framework To understand cultural value differences. 37 1. Hofstede’s Framework Greet Hofstede surveyed the variation in values among different cultures in 1970s. He found that mangers and employees varied in six value dimension of national cultures. 1. Power Distance: A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions ad organizations is distributed unequally. A high power distance means inequalities of caste system that discourages upward mobilities. Example: In Malaysia (high PDI), there is a clear respect for authority, and subordinates are less likely to challenge their superiors. In contrast, Denmark (low PDI) promotes open communication and encourages feedback, with employees feeling comfortable addressing their managers. 38 2. Individualism versus collectivism:Individualism is the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups and believe in individual rights above all else. Collectivism emphasizes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them. Example: The United States is highly individualistic, valuing personal freedom and achievement. In contrast, China exemplifies collectivism, where family and group affiliations are prioritized, and decisions often reflect group interests over individual desires. 39 3. Masculinity versus femininity: Masculinity means a national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favors traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control. Societal values are characterized by assertiveness and materialism. Femininity means a national culture attribute that indicates little differentiation between male and female roles; a high rating indicates that women are treated as the equals of men in all aspects of the society. Example: Japan is considered a masculine society, where success, ambition, and material rewards are highly valued. In contrast, Sweden represents a more feminine culture, prioritizing work-life balance, welfare, and cooperation. 40 4. Uncertainty avoidance: A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain an ambiguous stations and tries to avoid them. Example: Greece has a high UAI, valuing rules and stability, leading to a preference for structured environments. Conversely, Singapore has a low UAI, accepting change and ambiguity more readily, which fosters innovation and adaptability. 41 5. Long-term versus short-term orientation: Long-term orientation- A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence. Short-term orientation- A national culture attribute that emphasizes the past and present, respect for tradition, and fulfillment of social obligations. Example: US have a short term orientation, focusing on quick results, instant gratification, and immediate returns. China has a long-term orientation, which is evident in its emphasis on planning for the future, saving, and enduring hardships for greater future benefits. 42 6. Indulgence Versus Restraint: A national culture that emphasizes enjoying life and having fun (indulgence) vs regulating conduct through strict social norms (restraint). Example: Mexico scores cores high on indulgence, emphasizing leisure, enjoyment, and social gatherings as important aspects of life. Russia tends to score high on restraint, where societal norms discourage excessive indulgence and prioritize duty and self-control. 43 The GLOBE Framework Begun in 1993, The Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) research program is an ongoing cross-cultural investigation of leadership and national culture. The GLOBE team identified nine dimensions on which national cultures differ. Some—such as power distance, individualism vs collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, gender differentiation (similar to masculinity versus femininity), and future orientation (similar to long-term versus short- term orientation)—resemble the Hofstede dimensions. 44  The main difference is that the GLOBE framework added dimensions, such as humane orientation (the degree to which a society rewards individuals for being altruistic, generous, and kind to others) and performance orientation (the degree to which a society encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence). 45 MOTIVATION 46 What is Motivation? The processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. Intensity describes how hard a person tries. How ever high intensity is unlikely to lead a favorable job performance unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. Persistent dimension of motivation measures how long a person can maintain effort. 47  Motivation works best when individual needs are compatible with organizational goals. Need: An internal state that make certain outcomes appear attractive. An unsatisfied need creates tension which is reduced by an individual's efforts to satisfy the need. 48 Early Theories of Motivation Early theories were formulated in 1950s. They are also known as Content Theories as they focus on “what” motivates people. They are now questionable, but they represents a foundation of motivation theory. They are 1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory 2. Theory X and Theory Y 3. Two-Factor Theory 4. McClelland’s Theory of Needs 49 1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory Also know as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. It is the best know theory Given by Abraham Maslow. Hypothesizes that within human there is a hierarchy of five needs. No need is ever fully gratified. As each needs is satisfied, the next one becomes dominant. So if you want to motivate someone, you need to understand what level of hierarchy that person is currently on and focus on satisfying needs at or above that level. 50 51  Maslow further classifies needs into (i) Lower order needs which includes Physiological and Safety needs. And (ii) Higher order needs which include social, esteem, and self-actualization. Higher-order needs are satisfied internally (within the person), whereas lower-order needs are predominantly satisfied externally (by things such as pay, union contracts, and tenure). Research does not validate Maslow’s theory. There is little evidence that need structures are organized as Maslow proposed, that unsatisfied needs motivate, or that a satisfied need activates movement to a new need level. 52 2. Theory X and Theory Y Douglas McGregor proposed that manager’s attitude has impact on employee motivation. He proposed two theories by which manager perceive and address employee motivation. He referred to those opposing motivational methods and Theory X and Theory Y – Theory X is generally negative. – Theory Y is generally positive. 53 54 3. Two Factor Theory Also known as motivation-hygiene theory. Frederick Herzberg created the two factor theory. The two-factor theory argues that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction exist in two different ways, each with its own set of factors. This contradicts the traditional view of job satisfaction, which posits that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are interdependent. Herzberg proposed a dual continuum: The opposite of “satisfaction” is “no satisfaction,” and the opposite of “dissatisfaction” is “no dissatisfaction.” 55  This theory divides the factors into motivators or hygiene factors. 1. Hygiene factors: Extrinsic (environmental) factors that create job dissatisfaction. 2. Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that create job satisfaction. 56 57  1. Herzberg’s methodology is limited because it relies on self- reports. 2. The reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is questionable. 3. No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized. 4. Herzberg assumed a relationship between satisfaction and productivity, but he looked only at satisfaction. To make his research relevant, we must assume a strong relationship between satisfaction and productivity. 58 4. McClelland’s Theory of Needs Developed by David McClelland. Theory state that people are motivated by one of the three needs. i. Need for achievement (nAch): It is the drive to excel, to achieve in relationship to a set of standards. ii. Need for power (nPow): It is the need to make others behave in a way they would not have otherwise. iii. Need for affiliation (nAff): It is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. These needs are acquired through life experiences and culture and that everyone has varying degrees of each need. However each person had one dominant need that determines their behavior. 59 Contemporary Theories of Motivation They are also known as process theory. The focus on the “how” of the motivation. These theories focus on the psychological and behavioral process the human follow. The are 1. Goal Setting Theory. MBO Programs 2. Self-Efficacy theory. 3. Equity theory/ Organizational justice. 4. Expectancy theories. 60 1. Goal-Setting Theory A theory stating that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance. Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended. In order to increase performance: – Set specific goals. – Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than does easy goals. – Provide feedback. An individual is committed to the goal when he believes he can achieve the goal, and wants to achieve it. 61 MBO PROGRAMS: Putting Goal-Setting T. Into Practice Converting overall organizational objectives into specific objectives for organizational units and individual members. Four ingredients common to MBO programs: – Goal specification. – Participation in decision making. – An explicit time period. – Performance feedback. Failures may come from: – Unrealistic expectations regarding results. – Lack of commitment by top management. – Cultural incompatibilities. 62 2. SELF-EFFICACY THEORY The Self-Efficacy Theory of Motivation was developed by psychologist Albert Bandura in 1977. It emphasizes the role of an individual's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task. Self-efficacy, or the belief in one's own competence, significantly influences how people think, feel, motivate themselves, and behave. 63  Components of Self-Efficacy Theory 1.Mastery Experiences: o Personal success in achieving goals strengthens self-efficacy, while failure can weaken it. Success tends to boost one's belief in their ability to replicate that success in the future. 2.Vicarious Experiences: o Observing others (especially role models or people similar to oneself) successfully perform a task can strengthen one's belief that they, too, can succeed. Conversely, seeing others fail might lower one's confidence in their own abilities. 64 3. Verbal Persuasion: o Encouragement from others (such as teachers, coaches, or mentors) can enhance self-efficacy. Positive feedback boosts confidence, while negative feedback may have the opposite effect. 4. Emotional and Physiological States: o Emotions and stress levels influence self- efficacy. A calm and positive emotional state often enhances self-efficacy, whereas stress, fatigue, or anxiety may reduce it. 65 3. EQUITY THEORY Employees make comparison of their job inputs and outcomes relative to those of others: When employees perceive inequity, they can: – Change their inputs. – Change their outcomes. – Distort perceptions of self. – Distort perception of others. – Choose a different referent – Leave the field 66  Given payment by time: – Overrewarded employees will produce more than equitably paid employees. – Under rewarded employees will produce less or poorer quality of output. Given payment by quantity of production: – Overrewarded employees will produce fewer, but higher-quality, units than will equitably paid employees. – Under rewarded employees will produce a large number of low-quality units in comparison with equitably paid employees. 67 EQUITY THEORY: Conclusions Motivation is influenced significantly by others’ rewards as well as by one’s own rewards. Inequities created by overpayment do not seem to have a very significant impact on behaviour. Most research has focused on pay, but employees seem to look for equity in the distribution of other rewards. Historically, equity theory focused on distributive justice. But increasingly equity is thought of from the standpoint of organizational justice. Managers should consider openly sharing information on how allocation decisions are made, following consistent and unbiased procedures. 68 4. EXPECTANCY THEORY The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that the outcome to the individual. 1 2 3 Indivudual Individual O rganizational P ersonal Eff ort P erformance R ew ards Goals The theory focuses on three relationships: – 1. Effort-performance. – 2. Performance-reward. – 3. Rewards-personal goals. 69  Giving maximum effort not always means being recognized. Good performance appraisal not always leads to organizational rewards. Rewards are not always found attractive by employees: – Managers limited in the rewards they can distribute. – Managers incorrectly assume that all employees want the same. 70 EXPECTANCY THEORY: Conclusions The key is the understanding of an individual’s goal and the linkage between the three relationships. There is no universal principle for explaining everyone’s motivations. 71  https://www.verywellmind.com/attitudes-how-they-form-change-shape-behavior-27958 97 https://www.studyandexam.com/attitude-function-pn.html Robbins and Judge, “Organizational Behavior”, 12th Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. D. Jones, “Firms spend Billions to Fire Up Workers – With Little Luck”, USA Today, May 10, 2001 T.R. Mitchell, “Matching Motivational Strategies with Organizational Contexts”, Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 19, pp 60-62 P.C. Early, P. Wojnaroski, and W. Prest, “Task Planning and Energy Expended: Explorations of How Goals Influence Performance”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Feb 1987. J. Greenberg and S. Ornstein, “High Status Job Title as Compensation for Underpayment: A Test of Equity Theory”, Journal of Applied Psychology, May 1983. 72