PPE 3003 Final Exam Study Guide PDF

Final Exam Study Guide EXAM 1: Chapter 1: Definition of Personality ○ Components of Personality: Traits: Consistent patterns in behavior, thought, and feeling. Mechanisms: Internal processes guiding behavior. Enduring: Traits and me...

Final Exam Study Guide EXAM 1: Chapter 1: Definition of Personality ○ Components of Personality: Traits: Consistent patterns in behavior, thought, and feeling. Mechanisms: Internal processes guiding behavior. Enduring: Traits and mechanisms are stable over time. Individual Differences: Personality differentiates people. Influence: Personality affects interactions with the environment (physical, social, intrapsychic). Adaptation: How personality helps individuals adapt to different environments. Chapter 3: Personality Taxonomies Approaches to Taxonomies: ○ Lexical Approach: Based on language; assumes important personality traits will be embedded in language. ○ Statistical Approach: Uses factor analysis to group similar traits. ○ Theoretical Approach: Based on pre-existing theories about which traits are most important. Five-Factor Model (FFM): ○ OCEAN: 1. Openness to Experience 2. Conscientiousness 3. Extraversion 4. Agreeableness 5. Neuroticism How the various traits in the 5-factor model change as one gets older: 1. Openness to Experience: Decreases with age as people become more set in their ways and less open to novelty. 2. Conscientiousness: Increases with age as people become more responsible, organized, and reliable. 3. Extraversion: Decreases slightly, particularly in social dominance, as people become less active in social activities but may maintain positive emotions. 4. Agreeableness: Increases, as people become more compassionate, cooperative, and focused on maintaining relationships. 5. Neuroticism: Decreases, as people tend to become more emotionally stable and better at managing stress with age.  ○ Comparison of Personality Models: Five-Factor Model (FFM) vs. Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model: ○ FFM: Broad traits with more emphasis on social traits. ○ Eysenck: Focuses on three broad traits (Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism). ○ Eysenck’s Hierarchical Taxonomy: Hierarchy Levels: ○ 6. Supertraits (e.g., Extraversion) ○ 7. Narrow traits ○ 8. Habitual responses ○ 9. Specific responses ○ Trait Conceptualizations: Nomothetic: General laws that apply to many people. Idiographic: Traits specific to an individual. Chapter 5: Personality Stability and Change ○ Rank Order vs. Mean Level Change: Rank Order Stability: Relative standing within a group over time. Mean Level Change: Changes in the average trait levels within a group over time. ○ Reliability vs. Validity: Reliability: Consistency of a measurement. Validity: Whether the measurement truly measures the intended construct. ○ Methods to Measure Constructs: Longitudinal Studies: Track changes over time. TAT (Thematic Apperception Test): Assesses underlying motives. Twin Studies: Estimate heritability by comparing identical vs. fraternal twins. Chapter 6: Genetics and Personality ○ Heritability: Percentage of variance in a trait attributable to genetic factors. ○ Genotype-Environment Interaction: How genetic predispositions influence reactions to different environments. ○ Molecular Genetics: Purpose: Identifying specific genes linked to personality traits. ○ Genetics Controversies: Concerns include determinism, ethical issues, and the limits of genetic influence on personality. Chapter 11: Motivation and Gender Differences ○ The "Big Three" Motives: b. Achievement: Desire to excel. c. Power: Desire to have influence. d. Intimacy: Desire for close relationships. ○ Sex/Gender Differences in Traits: Differences in how traits such as aggression, nurturing, and dominance manifest.  ○ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: ○ Physiological Needs: Basic survival needs such as food, water, and shelter. ○ Safety Needs: The need for security and protection from physical and emotional harm. ○ Love and Belonging: The need for social connections, love, and acceptance from others. ○ Esteem: The need for self-esteem and recognition from others, contributing to feelings of accomplishment. ○ Self-Actualization: The realization of personal potential and self-fulfillment, representing the highest level of psychological development. EXAM 2: ○ Cloningers Tri-Dimensional Model: Serotonin: Linked to harm avoidance. Low levels of serotonin are associated with heightened anxiety and sensitivity to punishment. People with low levels tend to be anxious, vigilant, and avoid harm Dopamine: Associated with novelty seeking. Low levels increase the desire for novel, stimulating experiences This can drive impulsive and exploratory behavior Norepinephrine: Related to reward dependence. Lower levels make individuals more dependent on rewards from others, making them more sociable and empathetic. More empathetic and reliant on external approval ○ BAS/BIS BAS: Behavioral Activation System: regulates response to rewards, leading to approach behavior. High BAS is associated with impulsivity and sensitivity rewards Individuals with stronger BAS are more impulsive, seek excitement, and respond well to positive reinforcement BIS: Behavioral Inhibition System: regulates response to punishment, leading to avoidance behavior. High BIS is linked to anxiety and sensitivity to punishment. How do personality traits correlate with biological mechanisms Traits like impulsivity (linked to high BAS) and anxiety (linked to high BIS) are connected to neurotransmitter levels and arousal responses in the brain BAS: impulsivity, extraversion, and sensation-seeking BIS: Neuroticism and anxiety ○ Adaptation What is natural selection? The process by which traits that aid in survival and reproduction become more common in a population Traits that increase survival and reproduction are passed down through generation ○ Personality traits, such as a need to belong or fear of snakes, evolved to solve adaptive problems  What are the evolutionary problems faced by males and females? Males: uncertainty in paternity, leading to strategies to ensure reproductive success (competition for mates) ○ Mate guarding, intrasexual competition Females: Ensuring sufficient resources and support for raising offspring ○ How do they influence behavior? ○ What about mate selection? These differences influence behaviors, such as mate selection, with females being more selective and males engaging in more competition Females tend to select mates with resources and status to ensure offspring survival Males prioritize youth and physical attractiveness as these signal fertility Sex and Gender Differences: What are the social theories? ○ Suggests that gender roles are influenced by socialization, where boys and girls are raised with different expectations and behaviors Boys are encouraged to be more competitive Girls are encouraged to be nurturing These roles influence behavior and personality development What are controversies related to the study of these differences? ○ There is debate about whether observed sex differences are biologically innate or socially constructed ○ Some researchers argue that these differences may reflect stereotypes rather than inherit traits What do gender/sex differences look like? ○ Neuroticism: women score higher; especially in anxiety and fearfulness ○ Agreeableness: women tend to be more empathetic and trusting, while men show more assertiveness How big are these effects? How do we know? ○ Most sex differences are small, with effect sized often minor, but some larger differences (physical traits/aggression) do exist ○ These effect sizes are around 0.2- 0.3 ○ Notable exception: neuroticism being -0.49 for women Know how the “Big 5” relates to everything we have talked about in this unit ○ Extraversion: men are generally higher in assertiveness, while women score higher in warmth ○ Agreeableness: women are higher, displaying more trust and empathy  ○ Neuroticism: women score significantly higher, particularly in anxiety The big 5 traits relate to evolutionary pressures, such as the need for social partners and reproductive success Higher agreeableness may indicate trustworthiness in social interaction What are theories in the field of psychoanalysis that have empirical support? What do these theories speculate? ○ Repression: research supports that repressors show lower conscious distress but high physiological stress responded Tend to repress both negative and positive experiences ○ Unconscious processing: modern research shows that unconscious information isn't necessarily repressed Can influence behavior without conscious awareness, such as subliminal perception ○ Defense mechanisms: empirical studies have demonstrated the role of mechanisms like projection, denial, and displacement in helping individuals cope with anxiety and stress.