PLSC Exam Study PDF

Terms list: Concert of Europe ○ A diplomatic agreement between the major powers of Europe in the 19th century to: Maintain the balance of power, preservice political boundaries, uphold spheres of influence, prevent another continent-wide war, and resolve disp...

Terms list: Concert of Europe ○ A diplomatic agreement between the major powers of Europe in the 19th century to: Maintain the balance of power, preservice political boundaries, uphold spheres of influence, prevent another continent-wide war, and resolve disputes peacefully Realism: Focused on power balancing and cooperation among states to prevent dominance by any single power. Liberalism: Though informal, the Concert shows early multilateral efforts at collective security and diplomacy. Constructivism: Reflected shared norms among conservative European elites to uphold political stability and monarchic legitimacy. July Crisis (1914) ○ A series of diplomatic and military events that led to the outbreak of World War I ○ June 1914 - Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne and his wife were assassinated by a Serbian-backed terrorist group ○ July 1914 - An Austro-Hungarian envoy visits Berlin to access German support for action against Serbia. Germany issues a “blank check” promising unconditional support to Austria. Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia with German encouragement ○ August 1914 - Germany declares war on Russia. France enters the conflict in support of Serbia. Britain and its empire enter the war due to Germany’s violation of Belgian neutrality and British fears of German domination in Europe ○ The July Crisis was a month-long chain reaction of political, diplomatic, and military decisions that escalated a localized conflict in the Balkans into a global war. Realism: The crisis reflects states’ power struggles, alliances, and failure to prevent escalation through diplomacy. Liberalism: A lack of strong institutions for conflict resolution (e.g., no UN-like system) allowed for unchecked militarization. Constructivism: Nationalism, honor and ideas about war shaped state decisions and public support for conflict. Treaty of Versailles ○ A peace agreement signed on June 28, 1919 that formally ended World War I ○ Treaty required Germany to: surrender colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, give up territory to other nations, reduce the size of its military, pay war reparations to the Allied countries, and accept responsibility for the war Realism: The treaty reflects power politics, with the Allies imposing harsh terms to secure dominance. Liberalism: The inclusion of the League of Nations represents an early attempt at collective security and cooperation. Constructivism: The ‘war guilt’ clause shaped Germany’s national identity, fostering humiliation and revenge narratives.  League of Nations ○ An international organization that aimed to promote international cooperation and peace after World War I ○ Purpose: Was established to resolve international disputes, ensure the political independence of member states, and maintain world peace. ○ Founding: The League was founded on January 10 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference ○ Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland ○ Membership: The League was made up of many nations, but the United States was never a member ○ Disbandment: The League ceased operations on April 18, 1946, and its powers were transferred to the United Nations Liberalism: The League was a liberal attempt to institutionalize global governance and peace. Realism: The League’s collapse shows states prioritize power and security over cooperation. Constructivism: The League attempted to foster new norms of collective security and cooperation, but these failed to solidify. Iron Curtain ○ A political and physical boundary that divided Europe during the Cold War. It was a symbolic barrier between the Soviet Union and the West, separating democratic states in the West from communist states in the East. The Iron Curtain was a result of the Soviet Union’s efforts to prevent open contract between itself and its allies in Eastern and Central Europe, and the West and other noncommunist areas. The Berlin Wall was a concrete symbol of the Iron Curtain, separating East and West Berlin for 28 years. Realism: The Iron Curtain reflects power politics and the struggle for dominance between two superpowers. Liberalism: It highlights the breakdown of international cooperation and the need for dialogue (achieved post-Cold War). Constructivism: The ideological divide shows how different political and cultural identities shaped global relations. Truman Doctrine ○ A foreign policy established by President Harry Truman in 1947 that pledged American support for democratic nations facing authoritarian threats. The doctrine was a key part of U.S. foreign policy for the next 40 years. The Truman Doctrine was a shift in U.S. foreign policy, moving from withdrawal from regional conflicts to possible intervention. The doctrine was primarily intended to counter the growth of the Soviet bloc during the Cold War. Realism: U.S. intervention reflected a strategic effort to maintain power balance and limit Soviet influence. Liberalism: It promoted U.S. values like democracy and freedom as tools for peace and stability.  Constructivism: The framing of the Cold War as a moral struggle shaped global norms and U.S. foreign policy. NATO ○ Stands for North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a political and military alliance of 32 countries in Europe and North America ○ Purpose: To protect the people and territory of its members. The alliance is based on the principle of collective defense, which means that if one NATO member is attacked, all NATO members are considered attacked. ○ History: Was established in 1949 after World War II to block the Soviet Union’s expansion in Europe. The alliance’s headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium. Realism: NATO reflects power balancing, with collective defense ensuring deterrence against adversaries like Russia. Liberalism: Demonstrates international cooperation through institutional frameworks to maintain peace and security. Constructivism: NATO’s evolving identity reflects changing global norms (e.g., from countering communism to fighting terrorism). Warsaw Pact ○ A military and political alliance formed in 1955 by the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern European countries: Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. ○ The Warsaw Pact was created as a counter weight to NATO. ○ The pact was formally known as the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance. ○ The pact was dissolved in 1991 after the collapse of the Soviet Union. ○ The pact was part of the Eastern bloc, while NATO and its member countries represented the Western bloc. The two blocs were ideologically opposed and engaged in an arms race that lasted throughout the Cold War. Realism: The Warsaw Pact was a clear example of power balancing and military alliances to counter NATO. Liberalism: Its failure highlights the inability of coercive alliances to sustain long-term cooperation. Constructivism: The ideological divide (communism vs capitalism) shaped the pact’s creation and eventual collapse. Berlin Wall ○ A concrete barrier that separated East and West Berlin from 1961 to 1989. It was a symbol of the Cold War and the ideological divide between the Soviet Union and the Western Allies. ○ Construction: began in August, 1961, after the Soviet Union imposed the Berlin Blockade in 1948. The original wall was made of barbed wire and cinder blocks, but was later replaced by concrete walls up to 15 feet high. ○ Purpose: The wall was built to prevent East Germans from escaping to West Germany. The loss of skilled workers, professionals, and intellectuals threatened the economic stability of East Germany.  ○ Fall: The Berlin Wall fell on November 9, 1989. In less than a year, East Germany crumbled and Germany was reunified. Realism: The Wall was a strategic tool to maintain Soviet dominance and prevent power loss to the West. Liberalism: Its fall demonstrated the triumph of cooperation, diplomacy and democratic values over authoritarianism. Constructivism: The Wall’s symbolic role shaped perceptions of freedom, oppression, and identity during the Cold War. Proxy War ○ A military conflict where a third party supports one or more sides in a conflict, but does not directly participate in the fighting. The goal of a proxy war is to influence the outcome of the conflict to advance the third party’s strategic interests. Realism: Proxy wars reflect power competition, where states prioritize security and influence over moral concerns. Liberalism: Emphasizes the role of failed diplomacy and lack of global cooperation in allowing proxy conflicts to persist. Constructivism: Ideologies (e.g., capitalism vs. communism, Sunni vs. Shia) shape alliances and motivate proxy wars. First Gulf War ○ Known as the Persian Gulf War, it was an international conflict that took place in 1990 to 1991. ○ On August 2, 1990, Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein ordered an invasion of Kuwait to gain access to its oil reserves, cancel a debt, and expand Iraqi power. The UN Security Council condemned Iraq and imposed sanctions. They also authorized the use of force after January 15, 1991. ○ George Bush deployed U.S. forces to the Arabian Peninsula under Operation Desert Shield. The operation’s initial phases focused on deterring an invasion of Saudi Arabia and preparing to liberate Kuwait. Realism: The war reflects power politics, with the U.S. and coalition prioritizing regional stability and energy security over Iraqi dominance. Liberalism: The UN’s role showcases international cooperation and collective security principles. Constructivism: The framing of Iraq as a violator of sovereignty and aggressor shaped global norms around intervention. 9/11 ○ Four coordinated terrorist attacks carried out by al-Qaeda, an Islamist extremist group, that occurred on the morning of September 11, 2001. ○ Nineteen terrorists from al-Qaeda hijacked four commercial airplanes, deliberately crashing two of the planes into the upper floors of the North and South Towers of the World Trade Center complex and a third plane into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia. The Twin Towers ultimately collapsed because of the damage sustained from the impacts and the resulting fires. ○ The attacks killed around 3000 people from 90 nations.  Realism: The U.S. prioritized national security and military dominance through preemptive action and unilateral decisions. Liberalism: The attacks spurred international cooperation (e.g., NATO, UN resolutions) to address global terrorism. Constructivism: 9/11 reshaped global norms around security, framing terrorism as a primary existential threat to states. Second Gulf War ○ Also known as the Iraq War, was a prolonged conflict in Iraq lasting from 2003 to 2011. It began with the invasion by a United States-led coalition, which resulted in the overthrow of the Ba’athist government of Saddam Hussein. The conflict persisted as an insurgency arose against coalition forces and the newly established Iraqi government. Realism: The war reflects the pursuit of power, resources and national security under the pretext of WMDs. Liberalism: The U.S. framed the war as promoting democracy and removing a tyrannical regime, though its legitimacy was widely contested. Constructivism: Narratives of Iraq as a “threat” and moral arguments for regime change shaped public and international discourse. Brexit ○ Refers to the withdrawal process of the United Kingdom from the European Union. Article 50 of the Treaty of the European Union regulates the withdrawal process of any Member State. ○ Major reason: Factors in the vote included sovereignty, immigration, the economy and anti-establishment politics, amongst various other influences. The result of the referendum was that 51.8% of the votes were in favor of leaving the European Union. ○ Following a referendum held in the UK on June 23, 2016, Brexit took place on January 31, 2020. Realism: Brexit reflects the UK’s prioritization of sovereignty and national interests over integration. Liberalism: It challenges liberal ideals of interdependence and cooperation within institutions like the EU. Constructivism: Brexit illustrates how identity politics (British nationalism) and perceptions of the EU shaped political behavior. Russia-Ukraine Conflict ○ Began in 2014 with Russia’s annexation of Crimea and escalated in 2022 into a full-scale invasion. It’s the largest European war since WWII, causing widespread destruction and global economic disruptions. ○ Russia violated Ukraine’s territorial integrity, breaching international law. ○ Russia views NATO expansion as a security threat; Ukraine seeks alignment with the West. ○ The war highlights the U.S.-Russia tensions and global power competition. Realism: Power politics, Russia wants Ukraine as a buffer zone Liberalism: Sanction and UN efforts show cooperation but limited success  Constructivism: Clash of identities–Ukraine seeks European ties; Russia claims historic influence Mutually assured destruction ○ A Cold War-era doctrine where two opposing nuclear-armed states deter each other from using nuclear weapons, as any attack would guarantee total destruction of both sides. It relies on the premise of second-strike capability–the ability to retaliate even after being hit first. ○ MAD ensures stability by making nuclear was unwinnable and suicidal for both parties ○ The U.S. and Soviet Union maintained massive nuclear arsenals to deter direct conflict Realism: States act to ensure survival; MAD reflects the importance of power and deterrence. Liberalism: Arms control agreements seek cooperation to avoid nuclear escalation. Appeasement ○ A diplomatic policy where one state makes concessions to an aggressive power to avoid conflict. It is most associated with the 1930s, when Britain and France allowed Nazi Germany to expand unchecked, notably through the Munich Agreement of 1938, which ceded Sudetenland to Hitler. Realism: Appeasement fails when power-hungry states exploit concessions. Liberalism: Optimistic faith in diplomacy can lead to appeasement if threats are underestimated. George F. Kennan ○ Was an American diplomat and historian best known for formulating the Containment Policy, a key strategy during the Cold War aimed at stopping the spread of Soviet influence. He argued that the Soviet Union’s expansionist tendencies must be countered through strategic political, economic, and military means - not direct confrontation Realism: Kennan’s focus on power dynamics and containing Soviet influence aligns with realist principles. Constructivism: Kennan believed ideology (communism) was less important than Soviet geopolitical interests, emphasizing the role of perception and behavior. Policy of containment ○ Was a U.S. foreign policy strategy during the Cold War aimed at preventing the spread of communism and Soviet influence. It was first articulated by George F. Kennan in his 1946 Long Telegram and the 1947 X Article, becoming the backbone of U.S. strategy for decades. ○ Containment was a response to the Soviet Union’s post-WWII expansion in Eastern Europe and global ideological influence. Realism: Containment reflects power balancing and competition between the U.S. and Soviet Union as superpowers.  Liberalism: Programs like the Marshall Plan show the use of economic cooperation to limit ideological threats. NATO Article 5 ○ The cornerstone of the North Atlantic Treaty (1949), stating that an attack on one member is considered an attack on all. It establishes NATO’s principle of collective defense, ensuring member nations respond jointly to aggression. ○ Designed to deter external attacks by united 31 NATO members under mutual protection ○ Article 5 was invoked after the 9/11 attacks, demonstrating its relevance beyond Europe. Realism: Article 5 reflects a balance of power strategy, deterring adversaries through collective military strength. Liberalism: It demonstrates international cooperation and institutional frameworks to maintain security and peace. UN Chapter VII ○ Empowers the UN Security Council to take actions to maintain or restore international peace and security when threats arise. It allows for measures ranging from sanctions to the use of military force. ○ Chapter VII gives the Security Council legal grounds to intervene in conflicts or crises. ○ Non-military measures include sanctions, economic blockades, and diplomatic restrictions to pressure states. ○ Decisions depend on consensus among the P5(U.S., Russia, China, UK, and France) who can veto actions, often leading to geopolitical gridlock. Realism: The P5’s veto reflects power politics, as powerful states influence decisions. Liberalism: Chapter VII embodies multilateral cooperation to enforce international norms and peace. Human security ○ A concept in international relations that shifts the focus from state security to the security of individuals. It encompasses protecting people from threats like poverty, disease, human rights violations, and violence, going beyond traditional military concerns. ○ Emerging in the 1990s, it redefined security to address non-military threats like climate change, pandemics, and terrorism. ○ Linked to human security, R2P mandates international intervention in cases of genocide, war crimes, and ethnic cleansing. Liberalism: Highlights international cooperation, development, and human rights to achieve security. Constructivism: Emphasizes the role of norms and shifting perceptions of what constitutes security. Positive peace vs. negative peace  ○ Positive peace and negative peace are concepts introduced by Norwegian sociologist Johan Galtung to differentiate between the absence of violence and the presence of conditions fostering lasting peace. ○ Negative peace - the absence of direct violence. Focus: stopping fighting or conflict without addressing the underlying causes. Example: A ceasefire agreement halting combat but leaving tensions unresolved. ○ Positive peace - A state of sustainable peace achieved by addressing the root causes of conflict, such as inequality, injustice, and poverty. Focus: Building systems that promote social justice, equality, and cooperation to prevent conflict. Example: Post-WWII Europe’s reconstruction through economic integration( e.g., the EU) to foster cooperation and stability. Realism: Focuses on negative peace, emphasizing stability through power balance and deterrence. Liberalism: Aligns with positive peace, highlighting cooperation, institutions, and addressing structural causes of conflict. Failed, fragile, weak states ○ Describes varying levels of a state’s inability to perform core functions like maintaining security, providing services, and ensuring legitimacy. These terms are widely used in international relations to explain instability, conflict and humanitarian crises. ○ Weak states - have limited capacity to provide public goods (healthcare, infrastructure, etc.) but maintain basic order and sovereignty. Example: Haiti struggles with governance but still functions as a recognized state. ○ Fragile states - exhibit vulnerability to internal conflict or collapse due to weak institutions, poor governance, or external shocks. Example: Somalia has ongoing instability exacerbated by weak state structures and foreign interventions. ○ Failed states - lose the ability to exercise sovereignty or control territory. Governance collapses, leading to widespread violence and lawlessness. Example: Syria during its civil war or Afghanistan under the Tablian insurgency. Realism: Focuses on state weakness as a power vacuum, enabling competition, intervention, and instability. Liberalism: Highlights international cooperation and institutions to address fragile states through development and peacebuilding. Constructivism: Examines how failed state narratives influence international responses and policies. Responsibility to protect (R2P) ○ A global political commitment adopted at the 2005 UN World Summit to prevent genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. It establishes the principle that sovereignty is not a shield for mass atrocities but a responsibility to protect citizens. ○ State responsibility - States have the primary duty to protect their populations from mass atrocities. ○ International Assistance - The international community should assist states in fulfilling this responsibility.  ○ Intervention: If a state fails to protect its citizens, the international community has a responsibility to intervene through diplomatic, humanitarian, or military means. Liberalism: R2P emphasizes international cooperation and the moral responsibility to prevent suffering. Realism: States may prioritize national interests over humanitarian goals, undermining R2P. Constructivism: R2P reflects evolving global norms about human rights and sovereignty. Nuclear triad ○ The Nuclear triad refers to the three-pronged system of nuclear weapons delivery used by nuclear-armed states to ensure a credible deterrent and second-strike capability. It consists of land based missiles, submarine-launched missiles, and strategic bombers. The nuclear triad ensures second-strike capability, deterring a first strike by guaranteeing retaliation. Realism: The triad reflects power balancing and the importance of military capability for survival. Deterrence Theory: Ensures stability through mutually assured destruction. Extended deterrence ○ Refers to a security strategy where a nuclear-armed state extends its nuclear or conventional deterrence to protect an ally or partner against aggression. It reassures allies by signaling that the protecting state will retaliate if the ally is attacked. Realism: Extended deterrence reflects power balancing and alliances to counter adversaries. Liberalism: It promotes security cooperation and reduces nuclear proliferation among allies. IAEA ○ The International Atomic Energy Agency is an autonomous international organization established in 1957 to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy while preventing its use for military purposes, particularly nuclear weapons. It operates under the framework of the United Nations. ○ Nuclear safeguards - monitors and verifies that nuclear materials are not diverted for weapons through inspections and monitoring systems. ○ Promoting Peaceful Nuclear Energy - supports countries in developing nuclear energy for power generation, medicine, and agriculture under struct safety standards. ○ Safety and security - Sets international standards for nuclear safety to prevent accidents. ○ Technical cooperation - assists developing countries with nuclear technology for peaceful applications. Liberalism: The IAEA embodies international cooperation, institutions, and shared norms to manage nuclear risks.  Realism: States use the IAEA to advance their own strategic interests, such as monitoring adversaries’ nuclear programs. NPT ○ The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty is an international treaty adopted in 1968 to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons, promote peaceful nuclear energy, and advance nuclear disarmament. It entered into force in 1970 and has 191 state parties, making it one of the most widely adopted arms control agreements. ○ Three pillars - nonproliferation, peaceful use of nuclear energy, disarmament. Realism: States pursue nuclear weapons for security; non-compliance reflects survival concerns. Liberalism: The NPT highlights international cooperation to limit nuclear risks and promote peaceful energy use. Rational non-use vs. nuclear taboo ○ Rational non-use and the nuclear taboo are two competing explanations for why nuclear weapons have not been used since 1945. ○ Rational non-use: States refrain from using nuclear weapons because of rational, strategic calculation regarding the costs and consequences. Rational non-use is rooted in realism, emphasizing state rationality, power dynamics, and survival ○ Nuclear taboo: The non use of nuclear weapons is driven by a deeply entrenched norm against their use, which has become a global moral and ethical taboo. Tied to Constructivism, which highlights the role of norms, identities, and moral beliefs in shaping state behavior. Treaty design trade-offs: universality, ○ In treaty design, achieving universality - broad participation by as many states as possible - often comes with trade-offs. Treaties must balance depth and breadth (the number of participants), as stricter terms can deter participation. ○ Universality: Broad participation ensures the treaty applies widely but often requires weaker obligations to encourage more states to join. Example: The Paris Agreement (2015) allows countries to set their own targets to ensure participation from developed and developing states. ○ Depth: Stronger, binding obligations make treaties more effective but can reduce participation. Example: The Kyoto Protocol (1997) had stricter, binding emission targets but failed to include major emitters like the U.S. and China. Realism: States prioritize self-interest;trade-offs arise as states resist binding commitments that reduce sovereignty. Liberalism: Treaties rely on cooperation and universality to solve global issues but compromise on stringency. Constructivism: Norm-setting can help overcome trade-offs as states align with shared values over time. delegation, precision, obligation ○ These are three key dimensions used to analyze the design of international agreements and treaties. These elements determine how binding and enforceable a treaty is and the extent to which states cede control to external bodies.  ○ Obligation - the degree to which states are legally bound to comply with a treaty. High obligation: Treaties with clear, binding commitments that impose consequences for non-compliance. Low obligation: Treaties with non-binding commitments or voluntary measures. ○ Precision - The clarity and specificity of treaty provision. High precision: Treaties with clear, detailed rules leave little room for interpretation. Low precision: Vague language allows for flexibility but can weaken enforcement and accountability. ○ Delegation - the extent to which states delegate authority to third parties like international organizations or courts to interpret, monitor, or enforce treaty rules. High delegation: States allow external bodies to enforce compliance. Low delegation: States retain sovereignty over interpretation and enforcement. Realism: States resist high obligation and delegation to protect sovereignty. Liberalism: Delegation and precision help foster cooperation and enforce international norms. Constructivism: Precise norms and obligations can influence state behavior over time. Laws of war (jus ad bellum, jus in bello) ○ The Laws of War are a set of international rules governing the use of force and the conduct of war, designed to minimize human suffering and regulate warfare. These are divided into two main categories. ○ Jus ad Bellum (“Right to War”) - Determines the conditions under which states can lawfully resort to war. Modern context - Enshrined in the UN Charter: prohibits war except in cases of self-defence or UN Security Council authorization ○ Jus in Bello (“Justice in War”) - Regulates the conduct of armed forces during war to limit suffering and protect civilians. Modern context - Enshrined in the Geneva Conventions and Hague Conventions. Realism: States prioritize survival and may violate laws of war when it serves national interests. Liberalism: Emphasizes the role of international law and institutions in regulating war. Constructivism: Laws of war reflect evolving global norms about morality and state behavior. Universal declaration of human rights ○ A landmark international document adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948. It establishes a set of fundamental rights and freedoms to which all people are entitled, regardless of nationality, race, gender, or religion. It consists of 30 articles covering civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. ○ Key principles: Universality - applies to everyone, everywhere. Indivisibility - Civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights are equally important and interdependent. Inalienability - Rights cannot be taken away, except under  specific legal circumstances. Non-Discrimination - Everyone is entitled to equal rights and freedoms. Liberalism: The UDHR embodies the liberal commitment to universal norms, cooperation, and multilateralism. Constructivism - Highlights how global norms like human rights shape state behavior and international standards. Realism: States may prioritize national interests over human rights, undermining enforcement. Transnational advocacy networks ○ Networks of activists, NGOs and organizations that work across national borders to promote causes such as human rights, environmental protection, gender equality, and social justice. They rely on information, persuasion, and lobbying to influence state policies, international organizations, and public opinion. Liberalism: TANs exemplify international cooperation and non-state actors’ ability to influence global governance. Constructivism: TANs help construct and spread global norms (e.g., anti-slavery, climate justice). Realism: TANs lack hard power and depend on states or institutions for enforcement, limiting their influence. Military vs. humanitarian intervention ○ Actions taken by states or international organizations to address conflicts or crises, but they differ in motices, objectives, and legitimacy. ○ Military intervention - the use of armed forces by one state or coalition to intervene in another state’s affairs for strategic, political or security reasons. Examples: Russian annexation of Crimea: a geopolitical move under the guise of protecting Russian-speaking populations. ○ Humanitarian Intervention - the use of force or action to prevent or stop mass human rights abuses when a state fails to protect its population. Examples: NATO intervention in Kosovo aimed to stop ethnic cleansing by Serbian forces. Realism: Military intervention reflects power dynamics and national interests. Liberalism: Humanitarian intervention emphasizes international norms, cooperation, and moral duties. Constructivism: Humanitarian interventions arise from evolving norms around sovereignty and human rights. Autonomous Weapons Systems ○ AWS are military systems capable of selecting and engaging targets without direct human intervention. They use AI, sensors, and algorithms to operate independently or semi-independently. Examples include drones, robotic tanks, and unmanned submarines. Realism: AWS development reflects state competition for military superiority, driving an AI arms race. Liberalism: Efforts to regulate AWS through international agreements highlight cooperation and shared norms.  Constructivism: Ethical debates shape norms and perceptions of AWS legitimacy. Martens Clause ○ A principle of international humanitarian law that ensures protections in situations not explicitly covered by treaties. Introduced in the 1899 Hague Convention, it asserts that even in the absence of written rules, customary laws or humanity, public conscience and moral considerations still apply during warfare. ○ Proposed by Russian delegate Friedrich Martens at the 1899 Hague Peace Conference to protect civilians and combatants. Liberalism: Highlights the importance of moral norms, ethics, and multilateral agreement in shaping conduct during the war. Constructivism: Reflects how norms like “laws of humanity” evolve and influence state behavior. Realism: States may dismiss moral constraints when pursuing survival or strategic interests, testing the Martens Clause’s practical impact. Cybersecurity ○ Refers to the practice of protecting systems, networks and data from digital attacks, unauthorized access, or damage. It has become a critical aspect of national security, international relations, and global governance due to the growing reliance on digital infrastructure. Realism: States prioritize cyber capabilities to maintain power and national security. Cyberattacks are seen as tools of warfare. Liberalism: Emphasizes international cooperation to create cyber treaties and norms for responsible state behavior. Constructivism: Focuses on how states frame cyber threats, define “cyber sovereignty” and shape norms around acceptable behavior in cyberspace. The Paris Agreement ○ A legally binding treaty on climate change, adopted on December 12, 2015, under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. It aims to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels with efforts to cap it at 1.5 degrees Celsius. ○ Nationally determined contributions are updated every 5 years to increase ambition. ○ Developed countries pledged to provide $100 billion annually to assist developing nations with mitigation and adaptation. Liberalism: Emphasizes international cooperation, shared norms, and multilateral solutions to climate change. Realism: Some states prioritize economic growth over environmental commitments, leading to tensions and uneven participation. Constructivism: Highlights how climate change norms shape state behavior and international expectations for action. Potential Short Answer Questions: (IR = international relations) 1. Explain the difference between positive and negative peace, and why it matters for IR. a. Positive peace describes a state of sustainable peace achieved by solving the root of a problem. Negative peace is a momentary absence of violence. An example of negative peace could be a ceasefire that halts combat but doesn’t solve the problem. 2. Explain how realism, liberalism, and constructivism explain the cause of WWI. a. Realists emphasize competition of power as a main cause of WWI as Europe’s major powers tried to balance each other’s strength and Germany’s rapid growth of military threatened the existing balance. b. Liberalism argues that the absence of international institutions was the cause. There were no strong frameworks to resolve international disputes peacefully such as the United Nations which was only formed after World War II. c. Constructivism thinks the role of militarism and nationalism caused WWI. Serbian nationalist goals caused the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and Germany wanted recognition as a superpower so they were more willing to engage in war. 3. What is the pattern of nuclear non-use? What are the differences in the rational non-use and nuclear taboo explanations? a. The pattern of nuclear non-use is the consistent absence of the use of nuclear weapons since the U.S. dropped bombs on Japan. Nuclear taboo is an explanation based on the belief that the refusal of using nukes is deeply entrenched in us, becoming a global taboo. Nuclear non-use is a theory that suggests that states refrain from using nuclear use because of rational, strategic calculation regarding the cost and consequences. Rational non-use is rooted in realism while the nuclear taboo is tied to constructivism. 4. Explain realism, liberalism, and constructivism’s differing views of international institutions and organizations. a. Realists think international institutions depend on states for enforcement and funding, only reflect the interests of powerful states and that they are used to maintain the power a state has. b. Liberalism views international institutions in a more positive way as a tool for cooperation and conflict resolution. Liberals argue that institutions establish norms that promote stability. c. Constructivism also views international institutions as integral for developing norms and ideas that can influence state behavior. For example, the states of the European Union have a shared identity which reduces the risk of interstate conflicts. 5. How did 9/11 change the United States’ approach from the First Gulf War to the Second Gulf War? a. Before 9/11, the initial focus of the first Gulf War was on deterring an invasion of Saudi Arabia and preparing to liberate Kuwait. After 9/11, the second Gulf War was more focused on promoting democracy and removing a tyrannical regime. 6. What accounts for the shift from state security to human security, and why does this matter for IR? a. In the 1990s, people started becoming more aware of topics like climate change, pandemics, and terrorism which shifted concerns away from state security and to human security. This is important to international relations because it reflects how humans have adapted to responding to non-traditional threats 7. Describe the different trade-offs that go into designing a treaty, and how that affects IR. a. In treaty design, the depth of the treaty and the amount of participants must be balanced. If a treaty has stronger obligations (depth), it can be more effective but also reduce the amount of participants. A wider number of participants can make a treaty more universal but usually requires weaker obligations in order to encourage more states to join. This is important to international relations because an effective treaty can strengthen alliances or create new ones and balancing the tradeoffs is needed to ensure success. 8. Explain the arguments on both sides of the debate about whether war is less common today than in the past. a. One side of the argument thinks that because large scale or global wars haven’t happened since WWII, this means that war is less common today. They also reference commitments like R2P = and human right/security as having an effect on the decision making of war. The other side thinks that war hasn’t shifted in frequency but in nature. Many wars in modern times have been civil or proxy wars. These wars are fought away from the eyes of the public, especially the American public, so it makes sense why people think there is less war. Also, cyber attacks have been in use more than ever which can be very hard to detect. 9. How do narratives shape the behavior and decision-making of states in the international arena? Discuss with reference to the Cold War. a. Narratives can shape the behavior of states by justifying their actions to internal and external audiences. Similar to propaganda, narratives were used during the Cold War to, for example, frame the USSR as an “evil empire” like Ronald Reagan did in order to influence the American people and their opinions on the conflict at the time. 10. What makes cybersecurity different from more conventional military threats? a. Cybersecurity attacks differ from conventional military threats because an attacker can break a system from the comfort of being in their own country. Also, with the power of computers nowadays, a hacker could use a supercomputer to deploy multiple attacks at the same time. Sometimes, the country being attacked doesn’t even know what happened until it is too late.