PHCHEM Midterm Scope Outline PDF

## MIDTERMS SCOPE OUTLINE ### Periodic Table - Group IA (Alkali Metals) and IB (Coinage Metals) - Group IIA (Alkaline Earth Metals) and IIB (Volatile Metals) - Group III (The Icosagens) - Group IV (The Crystallogens) ### PERIODIC TABLE - Also known as the periodic table of elements, is a tabular...

## MIDTERMS SCOPE OUTLINE ### Periodic Table - Group IA (Alkali Metals) and IB (Coinage Metals) - Group IIA (Alkaline Earth Metals) and IIB (Volatile Metals) - Group III (The Icosagens) - Group IV (The Crystallogens) ### PERIODIC TABLE - Also known as the periodic table of elements, is a tabular display of the chemical elements, which are arranged by atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties. The structure of the table shows periodic trends. ### HISTORY OF PERIODIC TABLE 1. **Antoine Lavosier** - Father of Modern Chemistry - List 33 chemical elements (Oxygen, Sulfur and Hydrogen) 2. **Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner** - Law of Triads (Dobereiner's triad) - related properties 3. **Leopold Gmelin** - Gmelin System - he had identified ten triads, three groups of four, and one group of five. 4. **Jean-Baptiste Dumas** - Describing relationships between various groups of metals. 5. **August Kekule** - Ability of Carbon to bond other 4 elements. (Concept of Benzene) - Founder of theory of chemical structure 6. **John Newlands** - Law of Octaves - Arrange the elements according to atomic number but slightly differ from modern P.T. 7. **Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev & Julius Lothar Meyer** - Published periodic table 8. **Henry Mosley** - Modern Periodic table - **Vertical:** groups/family - **Horizontal:** periods/ series **Things to remember** - The periodic table has a total of 7 periods and 18 groups. - Groups A are referred to as representative elements (s and p block) - Groups B are transition elements (d and p block) - Inner transition elements include Actinides and lanthanides series (f block) ### GROUP 1A (AKALI-METALS) - MOST REACTIVE GROUP - Stored in inert solvent: kerosene coated and paraffin - Don't occur free in nature - Salt soluble - Valence electron: 1 - Activity ↑ with atomic number - Alkalinity ↑ with atomic number - Degree of solvation with atomic number ### HYDROGEN - By Henry Cavendish (1766) - Aka: "inflammable air" - Lightest and Most abundant element - Cation: monovalent or hydronium; Anion: hydride - Preparation: LANE PROCESS & MESSERSCHMIDT PROCESS: 99% PURE HYDROGEN **Isotopes:** - 1H-most abundant; PROTIUM - 2H-heavy hydrogen; DEUTERIUM - 3H-radioactive: TRITIUM ### LITHIUM - Greek word, lithos means stone, "Earth Stone" - Discoverer: J.A. Arfvedson - Lightest metal on Earth **USES:** - Heat exchanger in air condition - LiBr - antidepressant - Li2CO3(Lithase®) -DOC for Bipolar Disorder - LiD (Deuterium) -used in Hydrogen bombs - Diuretic ### LITHIUM CARBONATE - Quilonium-R - Lithane - Eskalith - Indication: Bipolar disorder - Relationship with Na? - Component of Lithia water | COMPOUND | IMPORTANT NOTES | | ---------------- | --------------------------------------------------------- | | Lithium oxide | Flux in ceramic glazes | | Lithium Fluoride | Manufacture of ceramics | | Lithium stearate | Cosmetics, in plastics, and as a lubricant in powder metallurgy | | Lithium Chloride | Manufacture of mineral water, esp. Lithia water | | Lithium Aluminum Hydroxide | Reducing agent, esp. In pharmaceutical and perfume manufacturing | | Lithium Hydroxide | Absorb carbon dioxide, esp. In spacesuits | | Lithium Citrate | Bicarbonated drinks | ### SODIUM (Natrium) - 4th most abundant element in Earth - the cation of choice to optimize the pharmaceutical utility of organic medicaments (therapeutic action due to anion, except NaCl) - Most abundant extracellular fluid cation ### SODIUM ACETATE - Urinary and systemic alkalizer - Diuretic - Antacid **Tests:** - Zinc uranyl acetate (ZnUO2(CH3COO)4) - Mg uranyl acetate (MgUO2(CH3COO)4) - Cobalt uranyl acetate ### SODIUM BICARBONATE - Baking soda - Systemic antacid - Carbonating agent - HCO3 - 2nd major extracellular anion **Side effects:** - Systemic alkalosis - Rebound hyperacidity - Edema ### SODIUM CARBONATE - primary standard for acid-base titrations - manufacture of "soda lime glass" **Preparation:** SOLVAY PROCESS **Forms:** - Decahydrate is washing soda, sal soda, soda crystal - Sesquihydrate is trona, urao - Anhydrous is soda ash, calcined Soda ### SODIUM DIHYDROGENPHOSPHATE - Fleet enema (Rectal) - Cathartic - Source of P or phosphate - Urinary acidifier ### SODIUM METABISULFITE - Na2S2O5 - Water soluble anti-oxidant (REDUCING AGENT) ### SODIUM PYROSULFITE - Reducing agent, esp. In pharmaceutical and perfume manufacturing ### SODIUM CHLORIDE - Rock salt, halite, table salt, Soler salt **Uses:** - Electrolyte replenisher (NSS, Lactated Ringer's soln.) - Tonicity adjuster - Condiments - Preservative - Antidote for Silver poisoning ### SODIUM CITRATE - Alkalizer - Buffer - Diuretic - Expectorant - Sequestering agent (Benedict's rgt) - Anticoagulant in vitro (Sodium citrate is the ANTICOAGULANT OF CHOICE for most routine coagulation studies (Harr, 2007) - Pro-coagulant in vivo ### SODIUM FLUORIDE - FIRST fluoride compound used in water fluoridation - Anticariogenic (2% solution) - Stimulator of bone formation ### SODIUM HYDROXIDE - Caustic soda; sosa; Lye; Saponifying agent - Titrant for acids - Component of soda lime (Ca(OH)2; NaOH, KOH) → CO2 absorber - Very deliquescent substance - Readily attack glass ### SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE - Dakin's solution; Chlorox (5% NaCIO) - Daikin's Solution: Modified Dakin's solution is Diluted NaCIO solution, NF - Used as irrigant - Labarraque's Solution: oxidizing and bleaching agent - Disinfectant ### SODIUM IODIDE - Bleaching agent - Solubilizer of iodine - Expectorant - Antifungal - Treatment of goiter ### SODIUM LACTATE - Antacid (management of acidosis) - Diuretic ### SODIUM NITRITE - Salitre (in Philippine market) - Vasodilator - Preservative - Treatment of cyanide poisoning - CN- higher affinity than Heme to Hgb - NaNO2 is highly correlated to brain tumors, and digestive tract cancer (Pszezola, 1998) due to nitrosamine production **CLINICAL CORRELATION** - CN Poisoning - NaNO2 - Amyl nitrite - Sodium thiosulfate - Others: Methylene blue; Hydroxocobalamin ### SODIUM NITRATE - Chile Saltpeter - Fertilizer (believed to be the oldest known inorganic fertilizer) - Manufacture of explosive - Guggenheim process - extraction process from ore **Test:** - Lunge test - (+) blue color at interface of 2 liquids - Griess-llosvay – (+) red color ### SODIUM SULFATE - Glauber's Salt - Sal mirabile - Saline cathartic - Production of detergents and paper pulping ### SODIUM TARTRATE - primary standard of KFR for water content determination - (+) K → Rochelle salt ### SODIUM THIOCYANATE - Hypotensive agent ### SODIUM THIOSULFATE - photographer's hypo; prismatic rice - Chemical antidote in cyanide poisoning - Management of iodine toxicity (converts iodine to harmless iodide) →Treatment of iodism: NaCl - **OTHERS SODIUM DERIVATIVES** - lon exchangers - Cellulose sodium phosphate: binds with calcium - Sodium polystyrene sulfonate: tx of hyperkalemia due to acute kidney infection - Sodium starch glycolate - Saccharin sodium - Sodium cyclamate - SLS - Sodium stearate - Sodium alginate - MSG - Sodium nitroprusside(infuse slowly) ### POTASSIUM (K) - AKA: kalium, potash - Most abundant and predominant INTRACELLULAR CATION - Deficiency: Hypokalemia → paralysis - Toxicity: Hyperkalemia → cardiac arrest **Glass modification:** - Potassium gives glass brown and light resistant - MnO2: masks blue-green color - Boron/Borates: decreases the coefficient of expansion - Pb: increase refractive index **Pharmacologic action:** - Diuretic; muscle contraction ### POTASSIUM DIHYDROGEN PHOSPHATE - Cathartic ### POTASSIUM CHLORIDE - Kalium durules® Electrolyte replenisher (slow IV drip) - Source of potassium - **IMPORTANT NOTE:** Never give by rapid IV push - DARROW'S SOLUTION - Oral glucose and electrolyte solution - KCI - NaCl - Na lactate - Water for injection ### POTASSIUM CITRATE - Diuretic - Expectorant - Diaphoretic ### POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE - Caustic potash, lye potash - Saponifying agent "Saponification value" - Hard soap was made using soda; soft soap with potash ### POTASSIUM BROMIDE - Depressant - Additives in bread ### POTASSIUM IODIDE - Same as sodium iodide - Expectorant - Component of many reagents - WAGNER'S = lodine Potassium lodide - MAYER'S /VALSER'S REAGENT = Potassium Mercuric lodide - DRAGENDORFF'S/ KRAUTS RGT = Potassium lodide + Bismuth Nitrate ### SULFURATED POTASH (K2Sx.K2S2O3) - Liver of sulfur - Heparis sulfur Preparation of white lotion - Use to treat acne and parasitic infections - With zinc sulfate → antipsoriasis ### POTASSIUM CHLORATE - Oxidizing agent - Use in fireworks - Component of gargle and mouthwashes ### POTASSIUM NITRATE - Salt peter, salitre, sal prunelle - Diuretic - Meat preservative ### POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE - Mineral chameleon - Oxidizing agent - Antiseptic (1:5000) - VS in permanganometry - KMnO4 → valence of Manganese? ### CUPRIC HYDROGEN ARSENITE - "Scheele's green" ### CHRYSOTHERAPY/ AUROTHERAPY ### GROUP IIA & IIB ### GROUP IIA METALS - Also known as the Alkaline Earth Metals - The following elements belong in this family: Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, Radium > **Properties:** - Chemical activities increases with the atomic radius - They are harder and less reactive than the alkali metals of Group 1A ### BERYLLIUM - Never employed in medicine because it is the most toxic metal - Used in fluorescent lamp ### MAGNESIUM - 2nd most abundant intercellular fluid cation - It is the metal present in chlorophyll (Significance: Photosynthesis) - Present in grignard's reagent (RMgX) - **Natural sources:** - As silicates: (talc, asbestos) - As CO3 (magnesite, dolomite) - As SO4 (kieserite) **Pharmacological action:** - Laxative - Depressant - Natural Ca-channel blocker - **Excess:** Hypermagnesemia (Antidote: Ca gluconate) **IDENTIFICATION TEST FOR MAGNESIUM** - p-nitrobenzene resorcinol → blue lake - Oxine reagent → yellow precipitate - Diphenyl carbazide - violet-red - Quinalizarin reagent → blue precipitate ### GROUP IIA METALS - Beryllium - Magnesium - Calcium - Strontium - Barium - Radium ### MAGNESIUM CARBONATE/ MAGNESIA - Uses: Antacid, laxative ### MAGNESIUM OXIDE / CALCINED MAGNESIA - Uses: Antacid, laxative - It is a component of UNIVERSAL ANTIDOTE: - (1 part) MgO - (2 parts) Activated charcoal (1 part) tannic acid ### MAGNESIUM SULFATE - Also known as Epsom salt - Uses: - Cathartic (PO) - Anticonvulsant (IM) - Tx for Pre-eclampsia triad ### MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE - Also known as milk of magnesia and magnesia magma - Uses: - Antacid - It is a component of Maalox® (MgOH2 + AIOH3 + Simethicone) - Type of bottle for dispensing milk of magnesia: BLUE BOTTLE ### HYDRATED MAGNESIUM SILICATE - Also known as talc, soapstone, French chalk - It is the softest mineral known - Uses: - Filtering agent - Clarifying agent - Dusting powder ### MAGNESIUM CITRATE - Also known as Limonada purgante or purgative lemon - Use: Cathartic ### CALCIUM - 2nd most abundant EXTRACELLULAR fluid cation - Primary component of bones and teeth, (98-99%) → hydroxyapatite - Vitamin D is needed for its maximum absorption - **Pharmacologic action:** - Blood coagulation factor - Important for muscle contraction - Important for the release of neurotransmitter - Sources: - Dolomite - Gypsum - Phosphate rock - Apatite - Deficiency states: - Osteoporosis: most common bone disorder; defective bone resorption - Osteomalacia: defective bone mineralization in ADULT - Rickets: defective bone mineralization in CHILDREN - Hypocalcemia ### CALCIUM BROMIDE - Sedative - CNS depressant ### CALCIUM CHLORIDE - Also known as "muriate of lime" - Use: Electrolyte replenisher ### CALCIUM CARBONATE - Other names: - Precipitated chalk - Prepared chalk - Calcite - Marble - Limestone - Uses: - Ingredient of toothpaste - Dentifrice ### CALCIUM GLUCONATE - Ca supplement and replenisher - Antidote for Mg2+ poisoning ### CALCIUM LACTATE - Ca supplement and replenisher ### CALCIUM BIPHOSPHATE - source of Ca and PO4 ### DIBASIC CALCIUM PHOSPHATE - Recommended calcium salt as electrolyte replenisher ### CALCIUM HYDROXIDE - Other names: - Slaked lime - Milk of lime - Calcium hydrate - Saponifying agent - prevention of milk curdling → promoting digestibility of the milk ### CALCIUM OXIDE - Other names: - Quicklime - Component of Bordeaux mixture - Insecticide ### CALCIUM PHOSPHATE - Also known as bone ash - Use: Antacid ### CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE - Other names: - Chlorinated lime - Chloride of lime - Disinfectant - Bleaching agent ### CALCIUM SULFATE - CaSO4. 2H2O - Also known as plaster of paris - Hemihydrate form - CaSO4. 2H2O - Also known as gypsum or terra alba Dihydrate form - Rodenticide - preparation of surgical casts and dental impressions - Use: manufacture of flares (red fireworks) ### STRONTIUM - Radioactive strontium is used as bone scanner - Strontium has an affinity for bones and useful in studying bone lesions ### STRONTIUM CHLORIDE - temperature desensitizing agent - ADR: Darkens the teeth ### BARIUM - Aka: heavy - Toxicity: Baritosis - Antidote: Epsom salt) - Use as green flares ### BARIUM SULFATE - Also known as "barium meal" - Radiopaque subs used for GIT imaging Doesn't dissociate in the GIT - CO2 absorber ### BARIUM HYDROXIDE - CO₂ absorber ### RADIUM - Discovered by Curie - Measurement: Becquerel - Radioactive element use for: - Cancer radiotherapy - Diagnostic purpose - **Board Question:** What is the FIRST radioactive element discovered by curie? ### POLONIUM ### GROUP IIB METALS - Also known as the Volatile Metals or Zinc Family - The following elements belong in this family: Zinc, Cadmium, Mercury - Properties: - Exhibit auto complexation - Only zinc is amphoteric ### ZINC - Soft metal - Metal present in insulin - Constituent of carbonic Anhydrase enzyme - Used to coat iron to make galvanized iron - Deficiency: Parakeratosis - Toxicity: Metal Fume Fever (Antidote: NaHCO3) - Pharmacologic action: - Astringent, antiseptic, protectant, antiperspirant - Natural source: - Most common zinc ore = SPHALERITE - TEST: Dithizone - (+) red color extract ### ZINC CHLORIDE - Also known as Burnett's disinfectant fluid, Butter of zinc - Component of Lucas reagent - Ingredient of Astring-o-sol - Uses: - Disinfectant/antiseptic - Dentin desensitizer - Corrosive ### ZINC OXIDE - Also known as Zinc White and Flowers of Zinc - Uses: - Component of Lassar's paste Component of calamine lotion - Zinc carbonate 15% - Zinc oxide 5% - Glycerin 5% - Water 75% - Ferric oxide 0.5% ### ZINC SULFIDE - Component of white lotion - Zinc sulfate + Sulfurated potash + ZnS - Only "white sulfide" - Component of Lithopone: 30% ZnS, 70% BaSO4 - Uses - Parasiticide - Topical protectant - Antiseptic ### ZINC SULFATE (ZnSO4. 7H2O) - Also known as white vitriol - Uses: - Pharmaceutical necessity for white lotion - Emetic - Ophthalmic astringent ### HYDRATED ZINC SILICATE - Also known as natural calamine - Use: topical protectant ### ZINC EUGENOL CEMENT - Dental protective ### CADMIUM - Use: astringent - Other use: manufacture of stink bomb - Toxicity: "Itai-Itai Disease" - Antidote: BAL - Management: Palliative therapy, EDTA immediately given after exposure ### CADMIUM CHLORIDE - Emetic ### CADMIUM SULFIDE - Anti-seborrheic - Only "yellow sulfide" ### CADMIUM SULFATE - Ophthalmic antiseptic ### MERCURY - Aka: QUICKSILVER, messenger of gods - Industrial use: manufacture of thermometer, amalgams (dental cement) - Source: Cinnabar/Aethrop's mineral (HgS) - **Disease:** - Minamata disease, Acrodynia or "Pink Disease", and Erethism (Antidote: EDTA) ### MERCUROUS CHLORIDE (HgCl or Hg2Cl2) - Also known as Calomel - Use: cathartic - Ingredient of Black lotion: calomel + lime water ### MERCURIC CHLORIDE (HgCl2) - Also known as Corrosive sublimate - Use: Disinfectant - **Mercurous iodide (Hgl)** - Use: Treatment of syphilis - **Mercuric iodide (Hgl)** - Stimulant of indolent ulcers - **Mercuric potassium iodide** - Component of Mayer's reagent - **Mercuric oxide (Hgo)** - "yellow precipitate" - **Ammoniated mercury** - Also known as "white precipitate" - Water-soluble mercury * Use: - Anti-infective ### GROUP IIIA METALS – The Icosagens ### Group 3 - The Icosagens - EXCEPT FOR BORON, THE GROUPS ELEMENTS ARE ALL METALS, KNOWN AS POOR METALS DUE TO THEIR LOW MELTING POINTS & HARDNESS | | | | :--- | :----------- | :---- | B | Boron | | Al | Aluminium | | Ga | Gallium | | In | Indium | | Tl | Thallium | | Uut | Ununtrium | - **Boron** - A metalloid and the only non-metal in Group 3 - **Aluminium** - The third most abundant element in the Earth's crust and the most abundant metal - **Gallium** - Solid at room temperature BUT IS LIQUID AT A LARGER RANGE OF TEMPERATURES THAN ANY OTHER ELEMENT - **Boron** - Non-metal - Component of glass - Sources: - Tincal - Na3BO3 H3BO3 - Hardness of Crytalline Boron - Valuable substitute for diamond in glass cutting and gem polishing **THE BORON FAMILY** - Boron (B) - Aluminum (Al) - Gallium (Ga) - Indium (In) - Thallium (TI) - The first two are the most important to pharmacy. - Only one of these elements, Aluminum can be considered to be abundant. It is the most common metal and the 3rd most common element in the earth's crust. Only oxygen and silicon are more abundant **CHEMICAL PROPERTIES** - Boron bonding tends to be more covalent than ionic; it is also referred as a metalloid. - Aluminum may form both covalent and ionic bonds. - The metals of this group readily oxidize when heated in air, although they are stable at ordinary temperatures. - The oxides are readily reduced back to the free metal. - The metals react readily with sulfur and the halogens. - The hydroxides tend to show amphoteric properties with the exceptions of the top and bottom elements of the group. ### CHEMICAL EQUATIONS - 4 M + 3 O2 è 2 M203 (M – AI, B) - 2 M + 3 X2 è 2 MX3 (M – AI, B) - Al(OH)3 + 3 HCI è AICI3 + 3 H2O - Al(OH)3 + NaOH è NaAlO2 + 2 H2O ### IDENTIFICATION TEST - **Aluminum** - Ammonia (NH3): white gelatinous precipitate of Al(OH)3 *AI(OH)3 adsorbs the color of the dye, aluminon producing a red lake. - Thenard's Blue Test: Co(NO3)2 + NH3 à Co(AIO2)2 Blue ash -- cobalt meta-aluminate - **Boron (Borate BO3-3)** - CH3OH + H2SO4 è (CH3)3BO3 green bordered flame - methyl borate - Acidic solution of borate will turn turmeric paper brownish red; while in basic or alkaline medium it will color the turmeric paper greenish black ### COMPOUNDS - **Boron** - Non-metal - Component of glass - Sources: - Tincal - Na3BO3 H3BO3 - Hardness of Crytalline Boron - Valuable substitute for diamond in glass cutting and gem polishing - **Borates** - Reacts with turmeric paper - Use in vulcanizing rubber - **Boric acid H3BO3** - "boracic acid", "sal sedativum" - Toxic by ingestion - Absorbed in broken skin - Buffer in ophthalmic preparation - Tonicity adjusting agent - E-VALUE=0.52 - Antiseptic - Eyewash: 2.45% - 2.5% - Boroglycerin glycerite - suppository base - **Sodium borate Na2B4O7** - Borax - Sodium tetraborate - Dobell's Solution – astringent or antiseptic wash for throat and nose - Eye wash - Component of cold cream ### Buffers - (1)Phosphate Buffer System - (2)Borate Buffer System ### Phosphate Buffer System - Has the advantage of containing the dihydrogen and monohydrogen phosphate ions, one of the physiological buffer pairs normally found in the body - Ex: Sorensen phosphate buffer system - Disadvantage: - insolubility of the phosphate salts of such metals such as Ag, Zn and Al - It supports microbial growth ### Borate Buffer System - Borate buffer system has been used in preparations containing metals that would otherwise precipitate in the presence of phosphate. - Since BORATES ARE TOXIC, these buffer system are suitable in external preparations, ophthalmic and nasal solutions but are contraindicated in parenteral solutions. ### 3 primary borate buffer system 1. Feldman's Buffer System (pH 7-8.2) - consists of solution containing boric acid, sodium chloride (to make it isotonic) and the alkaline solution containing sodium borate 2. Atkins and Pantin Buffer System (pH 7.6-11) consists of alkaline solution of sodium carbonate and acid buffer solution of boric acid and sodium chloride. 3. Gifford Buffer System (pH 6-7.8) – similar to Feldman's Buffer System however in place of NaCl, potassium chloride is used to make it hypotonic. ### Aluminum - Sources: - Cryolite (Na3AlF6, sodium hexafluoroaluminate) - Chief Source: Bauxite ore * Aluminon, the triammonium salt of aurintricarboxylic acid, is a dye commonly used to detect the presence of the aluminium ion in an aqueous solution - Pharmaceutical Uses of Aluminum: - Deodorant - Protectant - Antiseptic - Antiperspirant - Adverse Effect: ### Toxicity: - Constipation - Shaver's disease/ Bauxite pneumoconiosis - A progressive lung disorder caused by exposure to aluminum oxide which is present in bauxite fumes - Constipation - PO4 deficiency ### Aluminum phosphate (AIPO4) - "Phosphagel" - Antacid - Astringent ### Aluminum carbonate Al2(CO3)3 - Treatment of phosphatic calculi ### Alum - AI K(SO4)2.12H2O - Deodorant ### Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) - Alumina - Treatment of silicosis - lung disease caused by inhaling large amount of crystalline silica dust ### Aluminum acetate - AI(CH3COO-)3 - Burrow's solution, Domeboro's solution - Astringent - Dihydroxyaluminum amino acetate - Gastric antacid - Magma and tablet ### Aluminum silicates - KAOLIN -"native hydrated aluminum silicate", "china clay" - adsorbent & demulcent in diarrhea - BENTONITE (willkinite) -"native hydrated colloidal Al silicates - mineral soap, soap clay - suspending agent - PUMICE -"Na, K, Al silicates", Piedra Pomez - volcanic origin - dental abrasive, dentifrice - grades of pumice: flour/superfine, fine, coarse ### Gallium - Aka eka-aluminum - Substitute for Hg in manufacture of arc lamps. - Treatment of cancer-related hypercalcemia ### Thallium - "Thalos" - Green shoot or green twig - 2nd most toxic metal ### Aluminum chloride - astringent, antiseptic, component of deodorant ### Aluminum hydroxide Al(OH)3 - Amphojel - Cremalin gel - Adverse Events: ### The Lanthanides - ALSO KNOWN AS THE RARE EARTH ELEMENTS, THE LANTHANIDES ARE SILVER, METALLIC ELEMENTS, AND CAN BE FOUND IN MINERALS IN THE EARTH'S CRUST | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | La | Ce | Pr | Nd | Pm | Sm | Eu | Gd | Tb | Dy | Ho | Er | Tm | Yb | Lu | | | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| - **NEODYMIUM ALLOYS ARE USED TO MAKE THE STRONGESTO PERMANENT MAGNETS** - **MANY OF THE LANTHANIDES WERE FOUND IN MINERAL ORES FROM A MINE IN THE VILLAGE OF YTTERBY, SWEDEN** - **YTTERBIUM, ERBIUM, TERBIUM YTTRIUM ARE ALL NAMED AFTER YTTERBY** - **THE LANTHANIDES ALL FORM STABLE +3 IONS** - **THE LANTHANIDES HAVE ELECTRONS IN THE 4f ORBITAL, LEADING TO THE LANTHANIDE CONTRACTION** - **PHOSPHORESCENT EUROPIUM & TERBIUM COMPOUNDS ARE USED IN LOUDSPEAKERS AND IN HEADPHONES** - **SOME LANTHANIDES ARE USED AS COLOUR PHOSPHORS IN SOME TV SCREENS** - **LANTHANIDE COMPOUNDS REACT WITH OXYGEN TO GIVE COLOUR OXIDES & GLASS** - **SEVERAL OF THE LANTHANIDES FORM COLOURED IONS** - **IN 2010, CHINA ACCOUNTED FOR 95% OF GLOBAL RARE EARTH ELEMENT PRODUCTION** - **SAMARIUM & COBALT ALLOY IS USED TO MAKE THE MAGNETS FOUND IN ELECTRIC GUITAR PICK-UPS** - **The Actinides** - **THE ACTINIDES ARE DENSE, RADIOACTIVE METALS, MANY OF WHICH ARE UNSTABLE, AND THE MAJORITY OF WHICH ARE MADE SYNTHETICALLY** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | Ac | Th | Pa | U | Np | Pu | Am | Cm | Bk | Cf | Es | Fm | Md | No | Lr | | | | | | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| - **DATES OF DISCOVERY OF THE ACTINIDES** - 1820 Th-U - 1829 - 1841 - 1899 - 1930 - 1940 - 1944 - 1949 - 1950 - 1952 - 1955 - 1958 - 1961 - 1970 - **THE ACTINIDES ALL FORM STABLE +3 IONS** - **BERKELIUM IS THE RAREST NATURALLY OCCURRING ELEMENT** - **THORIUM CAN FORM MORE COVALENT BONDS THAN ANY OTHER ELEMENT** - **THORIUM IS A PYROPHORIC ELEMENT (IGNITES SPONTANEOUSLY IN AIR)** - **CURIUM IS SO RADIOACTIVE THAT IT GLOWS PURPLE** - **SOME ACTINIDES HAVE OXIDATION STATES OF VARYING COLOURS** - **ACTINIDES NAMED AFTER FAMOUS SCIENTISTS** - EINSTEINIUM - ALBERT EINSTEIN - FERMIUM - ENRICO FERMI - MENDELEVIUM - DMITRI MENDELEEV - NOBELIUM - ALFRED NOBEL - LAWRENCIUM - ERNEST LAWRENCE ### GROUP III-B ELEMENTS - **THE SCANDIUM SUBGROUP** - This is a very long group of elements, which include scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, actinium and the two inner transition series. > **What are the two inner transition series?** - **Lanthanides** (rare elements, atomic number 58-71) and - **Actinides** (atomic number 89-103) - All lanthanides are f-block elements, corresponding to the filling of the 4f electron shell, except for lutetium which is a d-block lanthanide. - The lanthanide series is named after lanthanum. ### LANTHANIDE SERIES - Lanthanum - Cerium - Praseodymium - Neodymium - Promethium - Samarium - Europium - Gadolinium - Terbium - Dysprosium - Holmium - Erbium - Thulium - Ytterbium and - Lutetium - All the lanthanide elements (La through Lu) occur in mixtures, which are hard to separate due to similarity in chemical properties. ### ACTINIDE SERIES - Actinium - Thorium - Protactinium - Uranium - Neptunium - Plutonium - Americium - Curium - Berkelium - Californium - Einsteinium - Fermium - Mendelevium - Nobelium - Lawrencium - All the actinide elements (Ac through Lr) beyond uranium are prepared synthetically and only exist as radioactive isotopes, which are usually not very stable. - The actinide series encompasses the 15 chemical elements that lie between actinium and lawrencium on the periodic table, with atomic numbers 90 - 103. - The actinide series is named after actinium - The actinide series is included in some definitions of the rare earth elements. - IUPAC is currently recommending the name actinoid rather than actinide, as the suffix "-ide" generally indicates ions. - All these elements form compounds with the 3+ oxidation state and also the 2+ state is known. - The metals have physical properties that are typical metals. They are all quite reactive chemically and the oxides are basic. ### GROUP 1B - COINAGE METALS - Can occur in free metal state - Complexes / chelates - Very malleable - Easy to recover from ore ### COPPER - Syn: Cuprum - Only reddish metal - 3rd most malleable metal - 2nd best conductor - Component of HEMOCYANIN (respiratory pigment) and cytochrome oxidase - **IMPORTANT NOTES** - Proximal renal tubular dysfunction - Renal Wilson's Disease - Cardiac - Eye - Kayser Fleischer rings - Liver - Hepatomegaly - Jaundice - Acute hepatitis - Fulminant hepatic failure - Portal hypertension: bleeding varices - Cirrhosis - Bone - Arthritis - Rickets - Haem - Hemolysis - Central nervous system - Deterioration in school performance - Behavioral changes - Inco-ordination (handwriting deterioration) - Resting and intention tremors - Dystonia - Dysarthria - Excessive salivation - Mask-like facies - Dysphagia - **2 important of alloys:** - Brass: Cu +Zn - Bronze: Cu + Sn - **Pharmacologic actions:** - Protein precipitant - Enhances physiological utilization of iron - Toxicity: Wilson's disease - Antidote: penicillamine ### CUPRIC SULFATE - CuSO4.5H2O - blue vitriol, blue stone, Roman vitriol, Salzburg vitriol - Uses - Component of Benedict's, Barfoed's and Fehling's ingredient - Antidote for Phosphorus poisoning