PED05 Lesson 6 Information Processing Theory 1st Sem 2021-2022 PDF

College of Teacher Education PED05 Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching Midterm, 1st sem. A.Y. 2021 - 2022 LESSON 6 – INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY ______________________________________________________________________________ Overview: Information processing is a cognitive the...

College of Teacher Education PED05 Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching Midterm, 1st sem. A.Y. 2021 - 2022 LESSON 6 – INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY ______________________________________________________________________________ Overview: Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory. It is one of the most significant cognitive theories in the last century and it has strong implications on the teaching-learning process. ______________________________________________________________________________ Objectives: Upon successful completion of this module, students should have the opportunity to: 1. Explain the major features of the information processing theory. 2. Cite teaching implications derived from the theory. 3. Identify teaching strategies that facilitate the storing and retrieving of information. _____________________________________________________________________________________ Discussion: Information Processing Theory Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy. The terms used in the information processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In fact, those who program and design computers aim to make computers solve problems through processes similar to that of the human mind. Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is learned. They consider learning as largely an internal process, not an external behavior change (as behaviorist theorists thought). They look into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve information. They believe that how a person thinks about and interprets what s/he receives shape what he/she will learn. All these notions comprise what is called the information processing theory. IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the environment through the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the information will continue to pass through the sensory register, then the short-term memory and the long-term memory. Certain factors would also determine whether the information will be retrieved or "remembered" when the learner needs it. Let us go into the details. We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive. ____________________________________________________________________________________ PED05Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching compiledby:gregana&chua-1stsem2021-2022 TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE General vs. Specific This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or only in one. Declarative This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are. They may be in the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name, address, a nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush. Procedural This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include making a lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting the least common denominator. Episodic This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation Conditional This is about "knowing when and why” to apply declarative or procedural strategies. Stages in the Information Processing Theory The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short-term memory and the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the progression of external information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, mental model, etc.). These three primary stages in IPT are: Encoding - Information is sensed, perceived and attended to. Storage - The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time, depending upon the processes following encoding. Retrieval - The information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory. What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could be described in a stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is taken into the memory system, and brought back (recalled) when needed. Most theories of information processing revolve around the three main stages in the memory process, namely: Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. The Information Processing Model (lifted from tcd.ie ____________________________________________________________________________________ PED05Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching compiledby:gregana&chua-1stsem2021-2022  Sensory memory is the state in which the stimuli sensed (heard, seen, touched, smelled, tasted) are temporarily held in mere seconds for the information to be processed further. As a person is presented a lot of stimuli at a given time, the sensory memory serves as a filter on what to focus on. When viewing a basketball game, you can see one person focused on the one in possession of the ball, while another one's attention is centered on the guard's action. Selective attention is the individual's ability to choose and process information while disregarding the other stimuli or information. Schunk (2012) cited several factors that influence attention: 1. The meaning is given by the individual to the task or information. 2. The similarity between competing tasks or source of information. 3. The difficulty or complexity of the task as influenced by prior knowledge. 4. The ability to control and sustain attention. As the information held in the sensory memory is for about three seconds only, unattended stimuli are forgotten. The information the person gave attention to is transferred to the short- term memory. Short-term memory serves as a temporary memory while the information is given further processing before it is transferred to long-term memory, Information in this stage is 15 20 seconds only and can hold from 5 to 9 bits of information only at a given time. Before the information is transferred to long- term memory, there are two strategies involved: rehearsal and encoding or elaboration Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition of the information to sustain its maintenance in the short-term memory. The use of ABC songs and number songs serve as rehearsal strategies among children Meanwhile, elaborative rehearsal is the process of relating the new information to what is already known and stored in the long-term memory to make the new information more significant. One scheme is organization, the process of classifying and grouping bits of information into organized chunks. For instance, memorizing the mobile number involves grouping the 11 numbers into sets of numbers, like XXXX. - YYY-ZZZZ. Arranging information into hierarchies is another scheme. For instance, flora and fauna are grouped into phyla/divisions, classes, orders, families, genera, and species. The use of mnemonic devices is also helpful. Mnemonic devices elaborate information in different ways. For instance, learners are taught the acronym "ROYGBIV” to recall that red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet are the rainbow colors. To differentiate stalactite and stalagmite found in caves, learners are taught that the “g" in stalagmite tells that the calcium carbonate deposit is located on the floor (ground), whereas the letter “c” in stalactite gives away its location (ceiling). ____________________________________________________________________________________ PED05Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching compiledby:gregana&chua-1stsem2021-2022  Imagery is a strategy that involves the memory taking what is to be learned and creating meaningful visual, auditory, or kinesthetic images of the information (Schunk, 2012). For instance, it is easy to locate Apayao in the Philippine map because it looks like the bust of a former president of the country. An example of kinesthetic imagery is associating that the left hand on the waist illustrates a less than value; the right hand on the waist indicates a greater than value. Information that is not rehearsed and maintained in the short-term memory is forgotten. It also involves the relationship between the new information and what is already known. The long-term memory is the storehouse of information transferred from short-term memory. It has unlimited space. Varied contents of information are stored, namely: 1. Semantic memory is the memory for ideas, words, facts, and concepts that are not part of the person's own experiences. Individuals with good semantic memory include those who know the capital of countries in the world, many words and their meanings, the order of planets, and other facts. 2. Episodic memory includes the memory of events that happened in a person's life, connected to a specific time and place. An example is a student who can explain the details of his or her most embarrassing moment (who were involved, when, where, why, and how it happened). 3. Procedural memory accounts for the knowledge about how to do things. A student teacher who recalls the step-by-step process of presenting the lesson to the class has procedural memory. 4. Imagery refers to mental images of what is known. For instance, beginning readers use configuration clues, shape, and appearance of words to help in word recognition. Associating a familiar image to the name of a newly introduced person, like giraffe, guides one to recall the name of Gigi, a long-necked beautiful lady. Retrieving Information from the Long-term Memory Retrieving information from long-term memory involves locating the information and transferring it to the short-term memory to be used for a purpose. Studies (e.g., Bransford & Johnson, 1972) have shown that a person remembers a lot less of the information stored in long-term memory. The quality of how the information was stored influences its access and retrieval. Retrieval of information from the long-term memory entails bringing to mind the previously acquired information to understand some new input or to make a response. Schunk (2012) mentioned two ways of information retrieval. One is recalling, which is either free recall or cued recall. In free recall, the person has to rely on the information previously learned purely by memory. In contrast, the cued recall involves the provision of cues and clues to the person to ____________________________________________________________________________________ PED05Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching compiledby:gregana&chua-1stsem2021-2022 help in the recall of the information. It is observed that whatever hints the person used to encode the information, the same would likewise facilitate its retrieval. Elementary learners can recall the letter in the alphabet if its image is accompanied by a picture of an object whose name begins with that letter. Recognition is another way to retrieve information. It involves providing the learner's with stimuli as choices to make a decision or judgment. In a multiple-choice test item, the difficulty of retrieving the correct answer is reduced because the examinees have options to choose from. Guided by their long-term memory, they would eliminate those options that are not plausible, to eventually arrive at the correct answer. Based on the primacy and recency effect principle, the information presented close to the start of the experience, and those that are close to the end are most remembered by learners. Forgetting Forgetting is the loss of information, either in the sensory memory, short-term memory, or long-term memory. Interference is the process that occurs when remembering certain information hampered by the presence of other information (Woolfolk, 2016). At the sensory memory, there are other stimuli that bombard the person. As one stimulus is just the focus at a time, others are forgotten. In the short-term memory, as rehearsal and maintenance activities are made, incoming new information interferes. The same phenomenon happens in long-term memory. When new information interferes with recalling the previous information, it is called retroactive interference. If the old information interferes with recalling the new information, it is referred to as proactive interference. In addition to interference, time decay is another factor for the loss of stored information from long-term memory. Unused information decays and is forgotten. However, some theorists argue that stored information in the long-term memory is never lost. To illustrate, a learner who had a traumatic experience in learning a Mathematics skill may deliberately want to forget the previous learning concepts. After several years, when those skills are required to learn another subject, those concepts surface again if there is conscious effort to review them. This situation is also related to the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. It involves the failure to retrieve the information, but the person is sure the information is known. The person feels that retrieval is imminent, but there is difficulty to directly it at the moment. TEACHING IMPLICATIONS OF THE IPT Following the concepts and principles associated with the IPL, Woolfolk (2016), Slavin (2018), and Schunk (2012) recommend the following to be used in helping learners to understand and recall what they have learned: 1. Make sure you have the students’ attention. Develop a signal that tells students to stop what they are doing and focus on you. Make sure that students respond to the signal. Practice using the signal. ____________________________________________________________________________________ PED05Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching compiledby:gregana&chua-1stsem2021-2022 2. Move around the room, use gestures, and avoid speaking in a monotone. 3. Begin a lesson by asking a question that stimulates interest in the topic. 4. Regain the attention of individual students by walking closer to them, using their names, or asking them a question. 5. Help students to separate essential from nonessential details and focus on the most important information. Summarize instructional objectives to indicate what students should be learning. Relate the material you are presenting to the objectives as you teach. 6. When you make an important point, pause, repeat, ask a student to paraphrase, note the information on the board in colored chalk, or tell students to highlight the point in their notes or readings. The use of mnemonic devices could assist learners’ retention of the information learned. 7. Help students to make connections between new information and what they already know. Review prerequisites to help students bring to mind the information they will need to understand new material. 8. Provide for repetition and review of information. Using graphic organizers for rehearsals can help. 9. Present material in a clear and organized way. Make the purpose of the lesson very clear. Advance organizers can help. 10. Focus on meaning, not on memorization. For instance, in teaching new words, help students to associate the new word to a related word they already understand. _________________________________________________________________________________ Evaluation: Activity 1: Cite a teaching implication of the information process given in the Table. One is done for you. Process Teaching Implication/s 1.1. Be sure that the learners’ senses are functioning 1. Information is received through the senses. 1.2. 2.1. 2. If information is not relevant, it decays. 2.2. 3. If information goes to 3.1. the Short-Term Memory and if given attention and 3.2. is found to be relevant, it is sent to the Long-Term Memory. ____________________________________________________________________________________ PED05Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching compiledby:gregana&chua-1stsem2021-2022