Conflict Resolution PDF

CONFLICT RESOLUTION Sources of Organizational Conflict Differentiation Views of what needs to be done to increase organizational performance differ because each function’s tasks, jobs, The splitting of the...

CONFLICT RESOLUTION Sources of Organizational Conflict Differentiation Views of what needs to be done to increase organizational performance differ because each function’s tasks, jobs, The splitting of the priorities, and goals differ. organization into functions or divisions produces conflict, because this leads the different subunits to develop Tendency of a function/department to different functional view themselves as more important orientations and makes than other functions. status inconsistencies apparent. As a result, they may attempt to achieve their goals at the expense of other functions. Sources of Organizational Conflict If two different functions/employees claim authority for the same task. Such confusion often arises in a Task relationships growing organization where top managers have not had time to clarify the task relationships and responsibilities of different groups. Overlapping authority, task interdependence, The development or production of goods and services depends on the flow of work from one function to and incompatible another; each function builds on the contributions evaluation systems may of other functions. stimulate conflict among functions and divisions. Inequitable performance evaluation systems that reward some functions but not others sometimes create conflict. (ie. sales vs production reward) Scarcity of Conflict over the allocation of capital occurs Resources among divisions and between divisions and corporate headquarters. (employees vs shareholders) Assessing the Conflict Situation Major factors to consider: Long term importance Importance of issue of relationship (individual and group) Level of stress around issue Level of two-way trust Stakes or risks Communication/Listening Complexity of issue skills of both parties Time pressures  Strategizing the Conflict Situation TRANSACTIONS BALANCED CONCERNS Major purchases (house), Business partners, Mergers Strategies: Competing, Strategies: Collaborating, Importance Compromising , Collaborating Compromising, Competing of the Issue [stakes] IMPLICIT COORDINATION RELATIONSHIPS Grocery store line. Work teams, long time friendship Strategies: Accommodating, Strategies: Collaborating, Avoiding, Compromising Accommodating, Compromising Importance of the Relationship [long-term] Collaboration = Better Decisions Research shows that successful Collaboration results in: Higher satisfaction with conflict outcomes Superior decisions Learning and innovation Trust building Regardless of your preferred conflict style, a team SHOULD shift into Collaborating on important and complex issues DECISION MAKING Leaders and Decisions Making decisions is one of the most important functions performed by leaders. Many of the activities of managers and administrators involve making and implementing decisions. Involving others in making decisions is often a necessary part of the political process for getting decisions approved and implemented in organizations. But not all decisions allow for a more participative process. Types of Decisions Nonprogrammed Programmed Decision Decision Decision making in response Decision making in respond to to novel/never issues or problems that are experienced opportunities routine or recurring. and problems. Organizational members use a Involves searching for the performance program, a extra information needed standard sequence of behaviors to make the right choice. that they follow routinely whenever they encounter a specific type of problem or opportunity. Types of Decisions Nonprogrammed Programmed Decision Decision Performance New Program problem Same Same problem Same problem problem Decision Making Process March and Herbert Classical decision- Simon’s administrative making Model decision-making Model. A prescriptive model—it describes A descriptive model—it explains how how people should make decisions. people actually make decisions. This model rests on two assumptions: Assumptions: 1. Decision maker’s limited 1. People have access to all the cognitive abilities information they need to make a and incomplete decision, and information affect decision 2. people make decisions by making. choosing the best possible 2. Consequently, decision makers response to a problem or often choose satisfactory, not opportunity. optimal, solutions. 1. Classical decision-making Model 4 Steps Process 1. List all the alternative courses of action from which the final decision will be made: these alternatives represent different responses to the problem or the Do members of opportunity. an organization 2. List the consequences of each alternative: the actually make consequences are what would occur if a given decisions according alternative is selected. to the classical 3. Considering personal preferences for each alternative and its set of consequences, rank model? the alternatives from most preferred to least preferred. 4. Select the alternative that will result in the most preferred set of consequences. 1. Classical decision-making Model Critics 1. People do NOT have all the info when taking a decision, and even if they had it, they wouldn’t be able to process it. 2. Consequences are not known. 3. Decision makers do NOT always know what they want, therefore they couldn’t rank the consequences. 2. March and Herbert Simon’s administrative decision-making Model. Decision-making is about achieving outcomes that are "good enough" for the individual based on their limited information and balancing the interests of others. 2 main concepts: SATISFICING BOUNDED "Satisfy and Suffice" RATIONALITY Searching for and choosing Decision-making ability is an acceptable response or limited by our own solution, not necessarily the best cognitive abilities and possible one. social limits. PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP Participative Leadership Important decisions in organizations typically require the support and authorization of many different people at different levels of management and in different subunits of the organization. It is common practice for a manager to consult with subordinates, peers, or superiors about important decisions when an immediate decision is not required. Participative leadership involves the use of decision procedures that allow other people some influence over the leader’s decisions. Other terms commonly used to refer to aspects of participative leadership include: consultation, joint decision making, power sharing, decentralization, empowerment, democratic management. Types of Decision Procedures Source: Yuki, G.A. (2020) Leadership In Organizations. Global Edn. Boston, MA: Pearson.  4 Types of Decision Procedures Autocratic Decision: Joint Decision: The manager makes a decision alone The manager meets with others to discuss the pro without asking for the opinions or blem and make a decision together; suggestions of other people, and these people The manager has no more influence over the have no direct influence on the decision; final decision than any other participant. there is no participation. Delegation: Consultation: The manager gives an individual or group The manager asks other people for their the authority and responsibility for making opinions and ideas and then makes the a decision; decision alone after seriously considering The manager usually specifies limits within their suggestions and concerns. which the final choice must fall and prior approval may be required before im plementation. GROUP DECISION MAKING Group Decision Making Techniques Several techniques have been developed to help groups make good decisions that promote high levels of performance and positive attitudes, here are 3 of them: 1. Brainstorming, 2. The nominal group technique 3. The Delphi technique. 1. Brain Storming A spontaneous, participative decision-making technique that groups use to generate a wide range of alternatives from which to make a decision. Group members tend to be inhibited from sharing all their ideas with others. Research suggests that individuals WHY? working separately tend Production Blocking: to generate more ideas tha Loss of productivity in n do brainstorming groups. brainstorming groups due to various distractions and limitations inherent to brainstorming. 2. The Nominal Group Technique STEPS: 1. Group members generate ideas on their own and write them down, 2. Group members communicate their ideas to the rest of the group, 3. Each idea is then discussed and critically evaluated by the group, 4. Each member privately ranks all of the alternatives from most preferred to least preferred. 5. The alternative that receives the highest ranking in the group is chosen. 3. The Delphi Technique Experts are asked to complete a questionnaire. After all the questionnaires have been returned, the leader compiles the responses and sends a summary of them to all group members, along with additional questions that need to No group be answered for a decision to be interaction. made. This process is repeated as many times as needed to reach a consensus or a decision that most of the experts think is a good one. STRESS AT WORK Personality and Stress Stress is the experience of opportunities or threats that people perceive as important and also perceive they might not be able to handle or deal with effectively. **Very personal experience** Personality and Stress Ambiguous conditions and changes at work will be X perceived as potential threats by people with high neuroticism and those people will feel ill-equipped to deal with both threats and opportunities. X Personality and Stress X Employees high on openness to experience may find risk taking and frequent change less stressful than those low on openness to experience. X Consequences of Stress Physiological Psychological Behavioral Sleeping disorder Increased or decreased Bad mood, Sweaty palms, motivation Feeling anxious, Trembling, Increased or decreased worried, and upset Pounding heart, performance (Inverted U) Feeling angry, High blood pressure, Strained interpersonal bitter, or hostile. Headaches, relations, Burnout Dizziness, Absenteeism, Nausea, stomachaches, Turnover. Backaches, Hives Heart attacks Impaired immune system Stress and Performance: The Inverted U George, Jennifer M.; Jones, Gareth R.. Understanding and Managing Organizational Behviour Global Edition (p. 276). 4 Potential Sources of Stress Group and organization Personal Stressors related stressors Work-life balance Job-Related Stressors 4 Potential Sources of Stress What happens to employees off the job can affect their attitudes, behaviors, and performance on the job as well as their own well-being. (ex. Fight with Personal Stressors partner) Life events (ex. Death, birth of a child...) Work-life balance Work conflicting with Dual-career couples one's personal life or worked, on average, 91 personal values. hours per week in the 2000s, compared to an average of 81 hours per week in 1970s. 4 Potential Sources of Stress Misunderstandings, conflicts, and interpersonal Group and organization disagreements and misunderstandings and conflicts related stressors due to cultural differences in global organizations. Uncomfortable working conditions (ex. excessive noise, temperature extremes, and poorly designed office equipment and machinery). Potentially unsafe or dangerous jobs (ex. nuclear power plants, exposure to toxic chemicals or dangerous machinery, or exposure to diseases such as AIDS...) 4 Potential Sources of Stress Job-Related Stressors Role conflict, Role ambiguity, Overload, Underload, bored, Challenging assignments, promotions, Conditions that affect economic well-being. Coping with Stress MOTIVATION Motivation The behavior can be Work motivation is the psychological forces functional or within a person that determine the direction of dysfunctional in the person’s behavior in an organization, the relation to goals and person’s level of effort, and the person’s level of effectiveness of the persistence in the face of obstacles. organization. Motivation Performance Theories of Work Motivation 1. Need theory, What motivates people? 2. Expectancy theory, Why do they become motivated? How do they sustain their 3. Equity theory, motivation? 4. Organizational Justice theory **complementary perspectives**  Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 1. Need Theory A group of theories about work motivation that focuses on employees’ needs as the sources of motivation. Alderfer’s existence- relatedness-growth (ERG) 2. Expectancy Theory Motivation is a function of the relationship between: 1. Effort/input expended and "Will my effort result in a given level of performance?" Will I be able to perceived level of performance sell 10 products if I apply the new sales technique? Which are 2. Expectation that rewards impacted by 3 (desired outcomes) will be related major factors: "Will I get the to performance promotion if I do extra hours"? 1. Valence 2. Instrumentality 3. Expectancy Vroom's Expectancy Theory 1. Valence: 2. Instrumentality: 3. Expectancy: The desirability of an An employee’s perception An employee’s perception outcome to an individual about the extent to which about the extent to which employee. his or her effort will result performing certain behaviors or performing at in job performance. Valence can be positive or negative. If an outcome a certain level will lead to an outcome. Expectancy varies from 0 to has positive valence, 1 An expectancy of 1 signifies an employee prefers having that an employee is the outcome to not having Instrumentality can be absolutely certain that his or it. positive or negative. +1 her effort will lead to a meaning behavior will lead to certain level of performance. outcome and –1 will not. 0 means the employee believes there is no relation. Vroom's Expectancy Theory In order for an employee to be motivated to perform desired behaviors and to perform them at a high level, the following conditions are necessary : 1. Valence must be high: The employee wants outcomes the organization has to offer. 2. Instrumentality must be high: The employee perceives that she or he must perform the desired behaviors at a high level to obtain these outcomes. 3. Expectancy must be high: The employee thinks that trying hard will lead to performance at a high level. 3. Equity Theory A theory about work motivation that focuses on employees’ perceptions of the fairness /equity of their work outcomes and inputs compared to others. Inequity, or lack of fairness, exists when outcome/input ratios are not proportionally equal. Inequity creates tension and unpleasant feelings for an employee and motivates the individual to try to restore equity by bringing the two ratios back into balance. 3. Equity Theory Source: Mullins L.J., Management & Organisational Behavior, 11th edition, p.241. 4. Organizational Justice Theory Group of theories about employees’ perceptions of overall fairness in their organizations. Distributive Procedural Interpersonal Informational Justice Justice Justice Justice " Do your " Have you had " Are employees " Were your outcomes reflect influence over treated with manager's explan the effort you the outcomes dignity and ations regarding have put into your (ie. performance respect? " the procedures work? " review) arrived reasonable? " at by those procedures? " " Has he/she communicated details in a timely manner? " GROUPS AND TEAMS Work Groups Formal Groups: Created to achieve specific organizational objectives and are concerned with the coordination of work activities. Teams: formal group of members who interact at a high level and work together intensely to achieve a common group goal. Informal Group: A group that emerges naturally when individuals perceive that membership in a group will help them achieve their goals or meet their psychological and social needs (ie. need for affiliation and friendship) Group Development: 5 Stage Model Group Development: Tuckman 5 Stages Model EFFECTIVE TEAMS/GROUPS Control in Group: Roles and Norms Setting up Rules Establishing Roles and Norms When a group divides up its Rules: formal description of work and assigns particular actions and behaviors specify in tasks to individual members, writing, or the best way to different roles are established perform a particular task. within the group. Associated with each role in a Group norms are informal group are certain rules of conduct. Often they are responsibilities and rights. not put in writing. Why do group members conform to norms? Compliance: most widespread basis for conformity to group norms assenting to a norm in order to attain rewards or avoid punishment. Identification: Internalization: believing that the behavior dictated by associating oneself with the norm is truly the right way to behave supporters of a norm and conforming to the norm because potentially most powerful basis for those individuals do. conformity to group norms Social Loafing Def. : The tendency for people to exert less effort when they work in a group than when they work alone. Lack of a connection between inputs and outcomes the employee's motivation is lower than it would be if they were working separately—so they do not exert as much OR Specific employees working in a group come to believe their efforts are unimportant or undervalued and this belief lowers reduces their motivation. Vroom Expectancy Theory of Motivation: Instrumentality and Expectancy factors. Vroom's Expectancy Theory 1. Valence: 2. Instrumentality: 3. Expectancy: The desirability of an An employee’s perception An employee’s perception outcome to an individual about the extent to which about the extent to which employee. his or her effort will result performing certain behaviors or performing at in job performance. Valence can be positive or (self-confidence) negative. If an outcome a certain level will lead to has positive valence, an outcome. Expectancy varies from 0 to an employee prefers having 1 An expectancy of 1 signifies the outcome to not having Instrumentality can be that an employee is it. positive or negative. +1 absolutely certain that his or meaning behavior will lead to her effort will lead to a outcome and –1 will not. 0 certain level of performance. means the employee believes there is no relation. Sucker Effect Def.: Occurs when group members who were not originally inclined to engage in social loafing lower their efforts when they observe other group members loafing. Because they do not want to be taken advantage of, or considered suckers, their motivation suffers when they see others in the group slack off. The sucker effect is consistent with the equity theory of motivation, which suggests that employees who perceive inequity are motivated to try to restore equity by bringing their outcome/input ratios back into balance. Equity Theory A theory about work motivation that focuses on employees’ perceptions of the fairness /equity of their work outcomes and inputs compared to others. Inequity, or lack of fairness, exists when outcome/input ratios are not proportionally equal. Inequity creates tension and unpleasant feelings for an employee and motivates the individual to try to restore equity by bringing the two ratios back into balance. Effective Work Groups: Cohesiveness 5 factors impact a group cohesiveness: Group size Similarity/Diversity As groups get bigger, their Groups tend to be most cohesive members tend to be less when group members are satisfied. homogeneous or share certain attitudes, values, experiences, and A small or medium group so on. size (between 3 and 15 people), tend to promote But, diversity (or heterogeneity) cohesiveness. can be beneficial because it offers the group varied resources and perspectives (a wider range of skills, abilities, experiences, and so forth) upon which to draw. Effective Work Groups: Cohesiveness 5 factors impact a group cohesiveness: Success Competition Exclusiveness Group success in Competition between A group’s exclusiveness is achieving their goal groups in an indicated by how difficult it is increase their organization to become a member of the cohesiveness. increases group group, the extent to which cohesiveness when it outsiders look up to the motivates members of group’s members, each group to band together to achieve Group’s status within the its goals. organization and the special rights and privileges accorded its members. How much Cohesiveness? Very high level of cohesiveness. Low level of cohesiveness. Group members socialize excessively Information flows slowly within on the job, the group, there is a very high level of conformity in the group has little influence over its the group and intolerance of deviance, members’ behaviors, and the group achieves its goals at the and it tends not to achieve its goals. expense of other groups or the organization as a whole. Moderate level of cohesiveness. Members work well together, there is a good level of communication and participation in the group, the group is able to influence its members’ behaviors, and it tends to achieve its goals.