Midterm 2 PDF

The Renaissance and Post-Renaissance: major political and cultural events. ○ Renaissance Rebirth of hedonism, materialism, vanity, egocentrism, individualism (Roman lifestyle) Egocentric individualism (monarchs, aristocrats, landlords etc)...

The Renaissance and Post-Renaissance: major political and cultural events. ○ Renaissance Rebirth of hedonism, materialism, vanity, egocentrism, individualism (Roman lifestyle) Egocentric individualism (monarchs, aristocrats, landlords etc) Obsessed with show of power + splendor Populism + festivities used to challenge Church’s authority ○ Inquisition as an attempt to stop heresies (beliefs contrary to the church) Narcissism Obsessive show of material wealth (dresses, palaces, sculpture, paintings etc) = snobbish fashion (Greco-Roman art) NOT the re-birth of Greco-Roman ethos of virtues + self-perfection Roman church also involved in the new rebirth = hired artists Leonardo da Vinci ○ The last supper, Mona Lisa, pained the vatican ○ Architect to the King of France (Château d’Amboise) ○ French revolution destroyed the church Michelangelo ○ The last judgment wall painting in the Sistine Chapel. ○ Pieta, David sculptures Raphael Santi ○ Loner, unemotional ○ Influenced by Leonardi but painted more madonnas than him ○ School of Athens Human body is glorified in the arts Realistic (naturalistic), portraits = peasant life + Biblical scenes Economic growth Trade, mobility, navigation, military tech ○ Post-Renaissance Explorations to receive goods from across the world + spread Christianity Christopher Columbus (New World), Marco Polo (China), Vasco da Gama (India), Ferdinand Magellan (Philippines) Spanish conquistadors take Mexico + South America EXCEPT Brazil ○ Brazil taken by Portuguese Niccolo Machiavelli Scholar, math New domains of training in business + political science  ○ Advised the monarch about how to manipulate the crowds with propaganda to win their following Cynical socio-techinques, manipulation, diplomacy, intrigues, propaganda To deliberately divide the people + pin them against each other ○ Period from end of renaissance to french revolution = Naturalism + discoveries in science (Switch from “divine” to “natural” powers) Enlightenment in education + social appearance Baroque, Rococo, Classicism in arts Zeitgeist: Tech + science discoveries transitioned the “divine powers” to “natural powers” to explain everything in the universe Enlightened by scientific or pseudo-science novelties Snobbish Spanish Inquisition. ○ Papal inquisition = court or tribunal to protect Christian dogmas Inactive until 1478 when Spanish rulers Ferdinand and Isabella started using it to fight the political opponents heretics ○ Spanish inquisition led by Thomas de Torquemada Against people that opposed his political views The Reformation, Martin Luther. N. Machiavelli, N. Copernicus, ○ Reformation = historical split of the Roman Church Protestant VS catholic Martin Luther (Augustinian German monk) = 95 item manifesto sparked an uncontrollable bloody revolt, wars, division for centuries ○ The poor were suffering thus revolted to return to Augustinian beliefs. ○ Copernicus Astronomer, canon of Catholic church Heliocentric: Proposed a politically incorrect theory that the sun was the center of the universe and everything revolved around it ○ Went against the accepted geocentric view (everything revolved around Earth) Later improved by Johannes Kepler G. Galilei, F. Bacon. ○ Galilei : Dominican Monk, math, astronomer (inspiration for Newton) Taught Copernican theories  Warned by the pope to stop teaching this + not publish, he proved the theory was right ○ Vatican did not allow him to publish + forbidden him from leaving his house until the end of his life. Observations of moon using a telescopes Primary + secondary qualities of perceived object Primary: Objective, same to everyone (shape, weight, etc) Secondary: Subjective, depends on observers (color, no possible way to know if we are seeing the same color) NOT JOHN LOCKE it was Galilei represent ○ Bacon : British politician and manager of science (advisor to king of England, promoted scientists, labs schools etc) Methodological discipline in presenting scientific concepts 4 types of bias (conscious or not that falsify results or methods) ○ Use of old prejudices + stereotypes = Idols of the cave Only one perspective ○ Uncritical reliance on sense perception = idol of the tribe Only what we see can make sense ○ Uncritical reliance on authority = idol of the theatre Dogmatic, authoritarian view ○ Bias of verbal attribution = idol of the marketplace Name should not be confused with the reality Name should be treated as that only (the name), not the actual thing ex) internet is the name/what we call it, it is NOT the actual thing (the actual thing = code, networks etc) The Scientific Revolution: major discoveries in medicine ○ Galileo Galilei : telescope, observation of the moon ○ J. Kepler: Planetary motion law ○ British army: magnetic compass ○ I. Newton: Light spectrum, gravitational law ○ Fahrenheit + Celsius: Thermometer ○ Lavoisier + Priestley: Oxygen, combustion, respiration ○ Jenner: Vaccination ○ Galvani: Animal electricity Pre socratic noted rubbing fur + amber = reaction Gilbert explained electrius = spark from friction Galvani = Iron + copper connected by physiological (electrolyte) = exchange of electrons  Animal electricity or galvanic current Dead frog leg twitches Galvanic skin response = lie detector tests ○ Alessandro Volta: Explained voltic battery Zinc + copper immersed in sulphuric acid = captured differently charged ions making them pos or neg electrodes the Academies, empiricism and rationalism. ○ Learned societies (Academies) Societies rather than schools Founded + controlled by monarchs, princes, dukes Comfortable spaces for scholars + activists (to debate + research) who felt constrained by the rules of christianity Opportunities for individuals or organizations seeking to exert financial and other forms of control over science NO teaching Florence, london, paris, berlin, st-petersburg, uppsala R. Descartes, I. Newton, J. Locke, G. Berkeley, B. Spinoza, ○ Descartes Renowned Catholic scholar, invited to Sweden to be Queen Christina’s tutor She wanted her subject to convert from Protestantism to Catholicism Rationalist: importance of logical deduction (rational deductive thinking) Psychological and logical proof of existence “I am thinking therefore I exist” Innate intuitions Axioms of geometry, unity, infinity, perfection and God The mind (soul) exists only in humans, provides consciousness, rationality, free-will and self-control Mind = immaterial (res cogitans) Body = material (res extensa) Dualism : interactionism (pineal gland) Animal spirits: physical nerve impulses Reflex: afferent nerve - center in spinal cord or brain - efferent nerve Emotions: Resulting from an interaction between visceral processes + brain processes Passions must be controlled by the reason (rational thinking) Rational ethics just like Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Spinoza, Kant Rational ethics based on the awareness of the  ○ Moral code ○ Freedom of choice ○ Responsibility ○ Cartesius Newtonian mechanics Planetary systems + living organisms are machines ○ Once they are created they are in constant motion functioning on their own Physical objects, plants, animals belong to res extensa Animals exist without knowing it (awareness but NOT consciousness) Human body is a machine also belongs to res extensa But the human mind (soul) exists knowing it does (consciousness) and belongs to eternal spiritual reality ○ Locke British empiricist, sensualist, associationist Nothing in the mind at birth (Tabula rasa = blank slate at birth) No content of the mind but born with a capacity of the mind (bigger or smaller depending on person) Basic mental processes : Sensations + reflections (associationist) Sensory input = simple ideas Reflecting upon + combining = complex ideas Revisited Galilei’s ideas Primary qualities: shape, solidity, mobility, number ○ Objective, independent of a perceiver Secondary qualities: Taste, color, odour ○ Subjective, dependent of a perceiver Learning, discipline and “hardening” in education ○ Berkeley Subjective empiricist (everything experienced is subjective) All qualities are secondary thus all our perceptions are subjective (to exist is to be perceived) God = constant perceiver VS Cartesius : To exist is to think VS Berkeley : To exist is to be perceived Locke: the mind depends on the objects VS Berkeley: The objects depend on the mind David Hume : Radical subjectivism, agnosticism, solipsism (solus = alone, ipse = self)  I only exist ○ Spinoza Dutch philosopher of Portuguese Jewish immigrants Refused professorship at the Uni of Amsterdam, wanted to be a free independent thinker and focus on writing his own major works Worked in labs polishing lens Dualism was nonsense There was no need for division of res cogitans vs res extensa because there is only one reality ○ Pantheism : One reality, God = nature nature/god manifests itself in lawful harmony ○ Double aspectism: One reality but seen from two different perspectives = spiritual or material depending on the context ○ Mind = spiritual and material (like the brain) Everything has a natural cause Learn the causes of behavior to predict, control, prevent actions Knowledge of consequences + awareness of choices (alternative ways of action) can increase our freedom of decision making = feel responsible for our choices ○ The more we know the more free choice we have G. von Leibniz, James Mill and John Stewart Mill. ○ Leibniz Made contributions to math, philosophy, physics, psych, engineering, academia, diplomacy Symbolic representation of coding (we all use symbolic codes to interpret + communicate info) ○ Non verbal + verbal code humans Encode individual and collective experiences Store them Share and communicate them Promoted learned societies (Academies) Created the Berlin Academy of sciences (he was 1st president) ○ Promoted reconciliation between the roman catholic and protestant church Monadology: Monads: Meaningful units of reality ○ Metaphysical = beyond space, time, cause-effect (beyond material reality) Beyond space + time  Independent, not causally related yet Co-related, harmonized, mutually networking Potentially aware of each other. ○ Contain pre-programmed (like genetic code in a cell) instructions called “Animating potentials” for: Movement = energy Development = actualization Consciousness = awareness Objects, plants, humans, animals have potentials but at different intensity levels ○ God = the perfect monad with highest intensity of MDC All objects are manifestations of monads Soul = one monad, body is another In the phenomenal (sensory) reality Gradation (intensity) of awareness/consciousness ○ Weak stimuli falls below the level of awareness are subconsciously represented as “petites perceptions” ○ They exist below the threshold of conscious detection = subliminal perception Inspired psychophysics and psychoanalysis (Weber and Fechener) C. von Wolff, I. Kant, J. Herbart. ○ Von Wolff Reintroduced the term “psychology” into the academic terminology at uni of Halle 2 aspects of psychology (inspiration for Kant) Empirical studies of sensation, perception, feelings Rational (theoretical) analysis of the human mind ○ Kant Prof of philosophy at uni of konigsberg Impossible to transcend boundaries of our cognitive abilities = NO direct access to the “thing in itself” = noumena Only have access to the phenomena = appearances Rationalism: Rational model of reality in itself must be complemented by a sensory, imperfect but practically useful view Only pragmatic psychology (or anthropology) exists, NO rational psychology Because subjective introspection cannot be an objective “meta-inspection” Cognitive intuitions or “categories of the mind”  Time, space, cause-effect, reality, negation, beginning - end, existence-non-existence, unity, totality, god Moral intuitions are inborn Truth, decency, responsibility Both = categories of understanding (the preparations of reason) ○ Herbart: Real thing exist because they produce their phenomenal appearances = “the reals” = metaphysical (like Leibniz’s metaphysical monads) The reals represented in the mind as the ideas Ideas have intrinsic kinetic energy of grouping + regrouping Group of ideas reaches a critical apperceptive mass = cross boundary between conscious + unconscious content of the mind ○ Compatible, relevant ideas cluster together = apperceptive mass that's capable of staying at the center of attention + awareness ○ Strong group can incorporate new elements or recombine itself ○ Kinetic + cognitive features of apperceptive mass = basis of creative thinking Apperception: Henry Murray projective test Thematic Apperception test (TAT) uses pictures to make a story that projects their transient or permanent attitudes. Primed by emotional state or personality attitudes (beliefs + expectations) is reflected in the stories History of ontological questions: What is REAL vs what is an ILLUSION ○ Galilei (later Locke = both p + s qualities = real): Objective (primary) qualities of perceived objects and subjective (secondary) qualities of perceived objects ○ Berkeley : All objects of our perceptions are subjective qualities, we have NO access to objective qualities ○ Hume: It is impossible to know if objects exist at all (solipsism) ○ Leibniz: The world of kinetic, developing, cognitive monads ○ Kant: sensory access to phenomena (sensory appearance), rational access to noumena (things themselves, rational essence) ○ Herbart: Phenomena (the reals) are represented as mental ideas equipped with kinetic energy + cognitive need for meaning (apperception) Sir F. Galton, psychometrics: ○ Galton “Grandfather” of modern psychology Weather forecast, unique fingerprints, boredom level in lecture, IQ + career, correlation coefficient, comparative studies among relatives, word associations, positive eugenics  Anthropometric lab : Measurement of individual differences Comparative studies + correlations ○ Scores compared to real life careers (questionnaires) to validate intelligence tests ○ Correlation of scores from relatives (of various proximity) to verify the heredity hypo ○ Statistics The word association method Recurrent associations are not random, meaningfully linked to the forgotten past Eugenics : Prototype of selective breeding + genetic engineering Financially supporting the exceptionally talented women and men to marry each other = promoting the chance of having gifted children A. Binet, William Stern, D. Wechsler, Raven, Ch. Spearman ○ Criteria of intelligence Fast processing of info and fast response Intelligence depends on heredity ○ Binet (later Wechsler) Logical + pragmatic reasoning Intelligence depends on experience (age) ○ Binet= Age group performance criteria: Task pre-test on pupils whose teachers grouped them as “typical for age” or “relatively delayed” or “relatively advanced” Correct performance tasks deemed “typical for the age” indicates mental age (MA) in the Binet test MA ÷ CA (chronological age) = intelligence level ○ MA = CA : average intelligence ○ MA > CA : advanced intelligence ○ MA < CA : delayed intelligence Louis Terman at Standford uni = Stanford-Binet Scale ○ William Stern Turned Binet’s IQ ratio into proportion IQ = (MA ÷ CA) X 100 ○ Raven Measures intelligence independently of where you grow up Impact of schooling on Binet + Wechsler test results The Raven matrices test = independent from schooling test Culture free intelligence test ○ Spearman  Purely mathematical definition of intelligence General factor “g” contributes to many intellectual-specific abilities ○ Raymond Cattell : Fluid VS crystallized intelligence Fluid = inborn skills crystallized = trained learned skills Psychophysics: E. Weber and G. Th. Fechner. ○ Psychophysics is the study of relationships between the properties of physical stim and subjective experience of those stim Sensory threshold: Weakest intensity that is detectable (e.g. 50% of the time) Difference threshold or just-noticeable difference (j.n.d) Minimal detectable change in the physical intensity of a stimulus Just noticeable difference between the original stimulus + the new one Webers Law J.n.d is a constant proportion of the standard stimulus ○ (Rn - Rs) ÷ Rs = k Rs : Standard stimulus Rn : New stimulus ex) a lifted weight k=1/50 ex) for a sound k=1/10 ○ Fechner Psychophysics: New science of the mind Measuring the mental, subjective experiences through physical stimuli J.n.d is a unit of mental experience Physical logarithmic scale: Scale of mental experience ○ Fechner: J.n.d as units along a sensory scale Physical VS subjective magnitude of j.n.d Log scale corresponding with subjective sensation ○ Fechner’s law: S = k log R Magnitude of subjective sensation is directly proportional to the log of the physical magnitude of the stimulus S = subjective magnitude of sensation k= constant fraction R = physical magnitude of a stim  ○ Blue = fechner law S y axis = subjective sensation in j.n.d R x axis = physical intensity on log scale Red = webers law S y axis = subjective sensation in j.n.d R x axis = physical intensity on arithmetic scale Medical observations: P. Broca and K. Wernicke, F. J. Gall, W. Penfield. Ch. Sherrington, ○ Broca Observed the trauma or cancer of the left frontal lobe (motor aphasia) Understood but could not speak / pronounce properly ○ Wernicke Observed the trauma or cancer of the left temporal lobe (sensory aphasia) Could speak properly but not understand ○ Gall First to conceptualize the localization of mental traits His student Spurzheim took it further with phrenology Could tell impairments in the brain by touching the skull + feeling misshape = associated with mental traits Ch. Bell and F. Magendie, Johannes Muller, H. von Helmholtz. ○ Cartesian concept continued Bell Motor nerves through the ventral tract (efferent nerves = from CNS to the muscles) Magendie  Sensory nerves through the dorsal tract (afferent nerves = from sensory receptors to the CNS) Muller Doctrine of specific nerve energies ○ 5 kinds of sensory nerves that each contain a specific type of energy (visual, auditory, tactile etc) ○ The energies involved in the receptors is what causes the sensations (?) Helmholtz Nerve energy is NOT specific ○ Same for all senses ○ The type of receptors are specific and the cortical field to which the sensory input is sent Photoreceptors in the retina ○ Rods = black/white vision ○ Cones = colour vision Trichromatic theory ○ 3 types of cones sensitive to blue, green, red Unconscious inferences in size constancy + depth perception ○ Size constancy: Use linear perspective to assess distance of the object A to B Retinal image size to judge if the object is in the same position ○ Depth perception Linear perspective Relative size of known objects, distance from horizon Structure of the image Eyeball convergence ○ Sherrington (Adrian) Nobel prize for the discovery of synapses The circumstances of the emergence of psychology as an autonomous discipline W. Wundt. ○ Medical studies at uni of Heidelberg TA for prof H von Helmholtz Then was instructor of physiology ○ Internship with Johannes Muller at uni of Berlin ○ Lectured on “psychology as a natural science” ○ Unofficial lab in Heidelberg  Studied chronometry with the use of a tachistoscope Device that showed visual stim but short controlled period of time ○ Became a tenured prof + chair of philosophy at uni of Zurich Wrote “Principles of physiological psychology ○ Then prof + chair of philosophy at uni of Leipzig Lectured on physiological psych (experimental) Supervised the experiments using chronometry ○ One room lab called “The institute for experimental psychology” used for research + teaching ○ Students W. James, E. Tichener, H. Munsterberg, Emil Kraepeling Most popular prof in Europe ○ Anthropological psych (?) ○ Basic ideas Humans exist in the physical world of objects + in spiritual world of culture Psychology deals with both aspects of human existence Experimental psychology ○ Focus on individual aspects of human experience such as sensation, perception, emotions, attention, memory, thinking, awareness ○ Discover all basic elements of the consciousness Sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings ○ Describe laws by which they combine + integrate within our minds Cultural (anthropological) psychology ○ Focus on social aspects of human experience such as language, meaning of symbols, intuition, arts, ethics, religion, customs, rituals, initiation into the tradition ○ Higher phenomena of human consciousness (lang, culture, religion, arts) can never be studied experimentally Must be done through natural observations + historical analysis Both sub-disciplines study mental experiences ○ Conscious experience of the world + the motivated behaviour “Voluntarism”: Essential aspect of mentality is intention (VOLITION) ○ The role of consciousness in motivated behavior should be systematically studied  Descartes: If awareness then mental Wundt: If volition then mental Meaningful units of awareness ○ Outer phenomenon (form) + inner phenomenon (meaning) in linguistic expression We grasp + memorize the inner phenomenon of the verbal expression ○ with schizophrenia individuals experience a loss of control over thoughts = loose + chaotic associations Attention processes are weakened = loose associations = bizarre conclusions Emil Kraepelin (founder of modern psychiatry) defined this condition as dementia praecox ○ Later renamed schizophrenia by Eugen Bleuler ○ Introduced three dimensions for the description of emotional state ○ Immediate experience focuses on conscious experience Physical science: Objects are observed via observation tools Perception is mediated by the observation tools In psychology: Mental processes are observed immediately by the person who experiences them Immediate experiences available via INTROSPECTION ○ Mental chronometry Mental processing time involved in Simple reactions to stimuli Complex reactions requiring a decision ○ Push green button when red light is on but push yellow when blue light is on Mental processing time needed to grasp the meaning of unrelated words vs related words Ontology + epistemology in pragmatic perspective ○ Pragmatism holds that truth is relative + transient (Like the Greek Sophists) ○ We should accept any concept whether scientific or not if it promotes better adaptation + survival BUT the acceptance needs to be useful in improving life conditions ○ Pragmatic ethics NO absolute ethical virtues or standards Change over time + across different cultures Primary criterion for ethics is safe individualism Exercising your own freedom + rights while respecting the freedom + rights of others  Balancing egoistic + altruistic principles requires personal responsibility, self-control, self-monitoring, if necessary self therapy E. Titchener. American Zeitgeist in the period of structuralism and functionalism. Pragmatism and functionalism W. James. Schachter, Valins. ○ William James Father of American psychology Visited Europe + met Wundt and other notables Taught physiology + psychology at Harvard Experiments in parapsychology “Principles of psychology” and “pragmatism” Hesitated between psych + philos Nominated Hugo Munsterberg to Harvard Lab President of American psych association (APA) twice Met with freud + Jung Illness + personal crises Deep depression, he used auto psychotherapy Theories of ○ Stream of consciousness Consists of a continuous flow of changing perceptions, ideas, feelings, motives that are influenced by ever changing environment ○ Habits Emotions, self image can be created + modified through willpower Involves self persuasion + pretending ○ Willpower Using will power allows Acting in ways that align with how you wish to feel + be perceived Develop 3 aspects of your empirical self ○ Material, social, spiritual Monitor, control, modify your habits, emotions, self-image ○ Self ○ Willpower ○ Positive thinking ○ Facial feedback ○ Emotions  ○ Theories of emotions W. Canon : Physiological mobilization for fight or flight Canon belief = emotion is primary to bodily mobilizations (ex: fear triggers an increased heart rate) W. James : Contrary, he argues that bodily mobilizations is primary to emotion Ex: An increased heart rate can trigger fear, smile can provoke happiness, hostile gesture can provoke anger etc S. Schacter : Both body mobilization + cog cue work simultaneously to trigger emotion Cog cue serves the attribution/ interpretation of physiological arousal S. Valins : even a bogus physiological cue might trigger an emotion if the person is not aware of their misattribution Wilheim Wundt VS William James Wilheim Wundt William James Father = protestant priest, Father = protestant priest, immobilized from immobilized/paralyzed by stroke leg amputation Trained in med but focused on philoso + Trained in med but focused on philoso + psych psych No formal training in psych (auto-didactic = No formal training in psych (auto-didactic = taught himself) taught himself) 1st psych lab in europe recognized 1st psych lab in america recognized “Principles of physiological psychology” “Principles of psychology” promoted psych Promoted psych H. Münsterberg. ○ Poland ○ Phd at uni Leipzig Was Wundt’s assistant ○ Later MD at uni Heidelberg ○ 1st international congress of psych in Paris Met William James -> later became director of Harvard pscyh lab ○ Psychology: A practically useful profession Applied psychology:  Industrial Forensic Clinical Now so many other branches “Psychotherapy” : Neurosis should be treated with effort, hard work, personal willpower, auto therapy G. St. Hall. ○ Functionalist , manager of science ○ Studied in NY (theological seminary) then went to Germany to study theology + Wundt ○ Taught at Harvard: English lit + psych Friends with William James ○ The “1st” 1st PHD in psych in America (supervised by James at Harvard) 1st psychological lab 1st american journal of psych 1st president of clark uni 1st president of APA ○ “Adolescence”: Recapitulation theory The evolutionary stages re-enacted in child’s developmental stages ○ “Senescence”: 1st Proposed pension plan for elderly citizens ○ Promotion + popularization of psychology as an academic discipline in America J. Dewey. ○ Student of S. Hall (John Hopkins) ○ Phd thesis on Kants pragmatic anthropology ○ Taught at uni of Michigan Book “Psychology” ○ Functionalist, pragmatist, educational psychologist, learning by action R. Woodworth. ○ Studied under James at Harvard + Sherrington in G Britain ○ Taught at columbia uni Functionalist + experimental psychologist ○ Co-author with Sclossberg “The experimental psychology” ○ Dynamic psychology Critiqued the simplistic S-R formula (introd by radical behaviorists) Extended it by adding the factor “O”. S-O-R : Recognizes the state of the organism, incorporating motivation, emotional arousal as well as instinctual, individuals preferences + methods of action I. Pavlov and R. Ader (nota bene: the material is not covered in the textbook). ○ Pavlov Russian physicians + physiologist 1904: Won Nobel Prize for the chemical specificity of saliva + gastric fluids secreted when a dog is exposed to diff foods Classical condition was after that 1st order signal = animals + humans (sensory similarity) Sensory characteristics of an object Animals generalize sensorily similar objects into sensory classes (tree, wolves, friendly animals) 2nd order condition = humans only (log similarity) symbolic meaning Logical characteristics of an object Humans generalize meaningfully similar objects into abstract classes (furniture, vehicles, internet = that the larger concept) even if they differ in sensory perception Language is a system of meaningful symbols representing these second order signals Before conditioning Neutral stimulus (bell) = no response Unconditioned stimulus (food) -> unconditioned response (salivation) = unconditioned reflex ○ Inborn, instinctual During conditioning Neutral stim (bell) before unconditioned stim (food) -> unconditioned response (salivation) After conditioning Conditioned stim (bell) -> conditioned response (salivation) = conditioned reflex ○ Learned, trained Jerzy Konorski came up with 2nd order generalization = conditioned reflex II (prototype of operant) Neurophysiologist (studied med and psych) 2 year residency with Pavlov Corresponded with Skinner Too slow to publish thus others got recognized for it Pavlov Difficult differentiation, cortical collision, experimental neurosis ○ Salivation in response to a circle (CS) - if rewarded - linked to (+) cortical excitation ○ Salivation in response to an oval - if punished - linked to (-) cortical inhibition  As the differences of the figures approach a critical threshold, dog begins exhibiting symptoms of experimental neurosis ○ Neurosis stems from “cortical collision” between excitation + inhibition Chain of classical conditioning (1, 2, 3rd order CRs) ○ 3rd reflex is only possible if pain in involved as unconditioned stimulus ○ Any other sensory modalities 3rd order cannot be produced Signal generalization 1st order signals = physically similar stim 2nd order signals = logically (meaningful) similar stim Chaining of conditioned reflexes 1st order reflex = reaction to CS1 linked to US 2nd order reflex = reaction to CS 2 linked to CS1 3rd order reflex = reaction to CS3 linked to CS 2 ○ Pain as the UCS only Extinction = weakening of the CS - UCS link Easier to extinguish CNS reactions than ANS reactions ○ Cannot stop the physiological reactions to whatever is happening, the behavior may stop but the physiology continues Ex: rats with nausea + immunosuppression probs Nausea stopped but the immunosuppression response continued + they eventually died from infection Natural extinction = animal naturally forgets over time Forced extinction = trial over + over without food to make it go faster ○ Doesnt fully break the response ○ Spontaneous recovery = later hear the bell + still salivate Radical behaviorism: ○ Source of human knowledge Instincts: Genetically transmitted know hows, biological survival of the species (basic knowledge ex: breathing, swallow etc) Protect the species existence + survival Social wisdom: Socially transmitted traditions, norms, customs, beliefs Social survival of culture + civilization ○ Protect the culture’s existence Personal experiences + thoughts: Meaningful existence of a unique individual  Protect the individual's existence ○ Behaviourism = ontological reductionism (reduced to very basic elements) From the meaningful whole to the meaningless parts Ex: flower = set of colors, cells, atoms Person = robot-like machine detecting stim + producing some responses ○ Radical behaviorism Thinking = invisible movements of the larynx + other muscles Feelings = physiological reactions learned based on instincts Soul, psyche, mind, selfhood, personality, consciousness are all “Science fiction” ○ J. Watson. Hated the term psychology Should be theory + science of behaviour Student of Dewey (Pragmatism, functionalism) AND Jacques Loab (tropism as a by-product of plants structure) Tropism = no mechanism or psyche causing the actions of living things Doctorate with dissertation titles “animal education: development of the white rat” Taught at John Hopkins Lectured at Columbia uni “Psychology as the behaviorist sees it” = radical manifesto ○ Rejection of mental processes (not scientific), psych, mind, self = science fiction ○ Rejection of introspection The brain = mystery box for physiologists ○ Psychology = behaviorism ○ Focus of S-R and ignore whats in between ○ Types of human behaviour Overt learned = talking Covert learned = heart rate increase stimulated by CS Overt inborn = breathing Covert inborn = saliva secretion stimulated by UCS General definition of instincts (Watson agreed with basic definition) Inborn predisposition to : ○ Cognitive component : attend to a certain class of objects ○ Emotional component : experience an emotional excitement  ○ Behavioural component : act Inborn reflexes (breathing, sucking) are by-products of the structure (like tropisms) ○ Unconscious by products of the mind) Instincts are particularly important in animals + babies as a foundation for learning new habits (behaviors) Affair with TA (Ms. R Rayner), divorced 1st wife, fired from John Hopkins Worked for business companies + published extensively on behaviorism (got psych award for his contributions) Contributions to behaviour therapy Skinner : token therapy = reinforcement/rewarding the modified habit ○ Baby albert Mary C Jones : Counter conditioning = undoing the phobia by changing the emotion toward the rabbit Joseph Wolpe: Systematic desensitization = linking relax to the emotional stim (not changing the emotion) E. Thorndike. ○ Animal studies to child psych (harvard + columbia) ○ Thorndike’s box: To reach the food on the OUTSIDE of the box the animal must perform a specific behaviour to open the box Prototype to operant conditioning ○ Law of effect: responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation = more likely to do it again in similar situations ○ Trial and error learning: Making blind (random) attempts until a successful outcome is achieved WITH NO INSIGHT or understanding ○ Connectionism: The more connections in brain made through S-R = the more intelligent behaviours one exhibits Types of intelligence : Abstract, social, practical ○ Transfer of capability: Abilities in one domain can manifest in other similar domains Today known as neuroplasticity ○ In the beginning all reactions are chaotic + random One presses lever + is rewarded (satisfying effect) = more likely to press the lever again Law of exercise: The more R is used in a situation the more it becomes associated with it Law of readiness: For S-R link there must be a motivation (ie hunger)  B.F. Skinner. ○ Pennsylvania to an intelligent family (dad = lawyer, mom = arts + literature) ○ Pigeon kamikaze : train pigeons to attack enemy ships through operant conditioning ○ Skinners box: Animal had to perform a desired action to receive food INSIDE the box ○ Went to harvard ○ Prof at uni Minnesota Wrote: “behaviour of organism”, “Walden two” = utopian novel ○ Prof at harvard Wrote: “verbal behavor” , “beyond freedom + dignity”, “About behaviourism”, “enjoy old age” ○ Published extensively ○ Psych should focus on study of a person who has acquired a unique repertoire of behaviours Genetic endowment + personal history come together in a joint effect = unique ○ Pavlov’s Classical conditioning Learning a new stimulus as a meaningful signal ○ Operant instrumental conditioning (also trial + error, CRII) Learning a new reaction as a meaningful response (Konorski, Thorndike, Skinner) Skinner coined the term “operant” ○ Thorndike's satisfying effect = Skinner’s reinforcement Rewarding stim (reinforcer) increases the probability that the response will reappear in the future ○ Cumulative response = pen moving up each time the lever is pushed See how fast the rat picks up on pressing the lever ○ The reinforcement presents a change of stim that INCREASES the probability of the reaction to reappear in the future ○ The punishment presenset a change of stim that DECREASES the probability of the reaction happening again Positive reinforcement = presenting a stim (ex: food, shock etc) Negative reinforcement = removing a stim (food, shock etc) Most efficient = positive reinforcement – negative reinforcement – negative punishment – positive punishment (the worst) ○ Shaping: Reinforcing consecutive improvements in a person's performance (skating, piano playing etc)  ○ Biofeedback : Shaping applied to physiological readouts (skin temp, heart rate, blood pressure, etc) translated into scaled signals (like tones or colours) Machine that detects small deviations in physiological changes can allow us to fix it ○ Primary reinforcers (innate) : Rewarding value inherently built into the structure of organisms = fundamental set of instinctual needs (hunger, thirst, sex) Need-gratifying properties of certain objects can be recognized intuitively from birth ○ Secondary reinforcers (learned): Derive their rewarding values from learned associations with primary reinforcers We learn the meaningful of things or words Clark Hull: mathematical deductive behaviorism ○ S-R link using math formula ○ sEr = sHr x V x K x D E = reaction potential (probability that R would happen) Ex: grizzly bear attack H = habit strength (# of S-R reinforcements) Ex: how many attacks recorded V = intensity of stim Ex: only walked by, bleeding, arm off K = incentive value of a stim Ex: bears like salmon more than human flesh D = drive (tension evoked by the need deprivation) Ex: bear was hungry Primary drive mechanisms = to satisfy the inborn needs Secondary drive mechanisms = to satisfy the acquired needs E. Tolman and Albert Bandura ○ Tolman : Cognitive behaviorist S-O-R O = state of the organism, emotional state, cognitive state Reinforcement is not required in learning Neo-behaviorism Mental representation of S and R in the form of ○ Cognitive maps ○ Expectations ○ Plans of action Tolman: ○ Cog map is learned without reinforcement  ○ Latent learning (learn more than we need just in case, info may be useful later) ○ Bandura Social cognitive theory Individual cognition: Exploring, mapping, memorizing, processing, reasoning, evaluating Social cognition : learning from others ○ Direct or symbolic models representing the collective experience ○ We learn through others’ lang, systems, customs, traditions etc Learning from personal history and models (observed or imagined) Creating self-modeling system ○ Live modeling: immediate, participant modeling Apprentice + master = follow exactly what they do ○ Vicarious modeling: latent learning = just watch + learn ○ Symbolic = verbal knowledge acquired = listen, books etc ○ Internal modeling = self modeling You create who you want to be, how I want to shape my values, goals, actions etc ○ The outcome expectancy Foresight reasoning (if a then b) instead of trial + error Insightful hetero- and auto- referencing in monitoring, assessment, control of moral choices Gradually create personal self-modeling (self-referencing system) ○ Self image, self monitoring, self evaluation, self regulation ○ Notion of psyche is back ○ Bandura modeling Clinical application of vicarious modeling in preparing children for surgery Master model video : smiling, confident, no problems or fear Coping model video: nervous, asking questions, etc ○ Coping was more believable for children