Midterm 2 - Google Docs PDF
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This document appears to be a midterm for a psychology course focusing on cognitive development. It contains questions and answers on concepts such as the spacing effect, recognition vs recall, and the nature-nurture debate.
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Cognitive Development I, 10/1/24 1. What is the spacing effect in memory? a. Spacing Effect:the cognitive benefit of distributingstudy sessions over time rather than in a single period (cramming) b. S...
Cognitive Development I, 10/1/24 1. What is the spacing effect in memory? a. Spacing Effect:the cognitive benefit of distributingstudy sessions over time rather than in a single period (cramming) b. Spacing allows for better memory consolidation; reduces cognitive load; better long-term retention c. Ex. Studying vocab for 20 min each day rather than two hours before the test 2. When it comes to people with extraordinary abilities, there are intriguing questions about how much can be attributed to genetic predispositions vs. motivation and deliberate practice. In the case of intelligence, the threshold hypothesis suggests that there is a correlation between IQ and success, but only up to a point - that having additional IQ points beyond this threshold doesn't contribute much to success. Does the evidence support this idea? a. Hypothesis suggests there is apositivecorrelationbetween IG and success but says that the correlation plateaus beyond a certain point i. At some point, more IQ adds little real-world success b. Ex. Successful professionals or creatives may not have the highest IQ scores but succeed due to resilience and motivation i. Supports the hypothesis that beyond a certain point, IQ is not the sole predictor 3. In studying, is it better to focus on recognition, or on recall? Describe the Karpicke & Roediger experiment about finding the most efficient study strategies. a. Recognition:Identifying previously encountered informationwhen it is presented again i. Ex. Multiple choice questions on a test. You recognize the correct answer from aset of choicesrather than generating it frommemory b. Recall: i. The ability to retrieve information from memory without explicit cues or prompts 1. Ex. Answering short-answer questions about a specific theory from memory. c. Karpicke & Roediger Experiment: i. Designed to compare study methods and measure the effectiveness of recall-based study (retrieval) versus recognition or review-based study 1. They found that students who practiced retrieval/recall, retained information significantly better than those who relied on recognition 2. Recall ismore effectiveas a study strategy for long-termretention as compared to recognition-based methods. 4. W hat is the Nature-Nurture question? Describe how this question applies to (1) individual differences among humans, (2) differentiating humans from other animals, and (3) human development. Considering "nature" and "nurture", how do these line up with "nativism" and "empiricism"? a. The question asks to what extent our characteristics, behaviors, and abilities are shaped by genetics (natural) versus our environmental influences (nurture). i. Differences among humans: 1. Nature:Genetic predispositions can influence traitslike intelligence, personality, and physical characteristics a. Ex. Generic differences explain why some people are naturally more extroverted than others. 2. Nurture:Uprinting, education, culture, and personalexperience shape and modify these traits a. Ex. a person may inherit a tendency towards high intelligence, but their schooling and opportunities affect how that intelligence develops. 3. Ex. a. A study of twins shows that identical twins raised apart often have similar traits, but can show significant differences due to each respective environment. ii. Humans VS Animals: 1. Nature:Humans share basic biological processes withanimals due to common ancestry, but genetic evolution has left humans with unique traits, like advanced cognitive abilities, language, and culture. 2. Nurture:HUman development is highly influenced bycultural and social learning, which sets us apart from most animals. 3. Ex. a. Primates and some animals show forms of communication and tool use, human language and complex technology rely on environmental learning and cultural transmission, highlighting a combination of biological potential and nurture-based development iii. Human Development: 1. Nature: Certain developmental milestones (walking,talking, and emotional responses) have biological basis and tend to unfold across all cultures 2. Nurture:Environment shapes how individuals reachand move through these stages a. E x. a child's language abilities depend on genetic predispositions but require extensive exposure to language in order to develop. 3. Ex. a. While all children are biologically predisposed to acquire language, the specific languages they speak are determined by their environment. iv. Nativism & Empiricism: 1. Nativism (Aligned with nature): The idea that certainabilities or characteristics are innate and biologically determined a. Ex. Humans are born with inherent cognitive abilities like the potential for language 2. Empiricism (aligned with nurture): The belief thatknowledge comes from experience and that the mind starts as a blank slate (tabula rasa). 3. Interaction: a. Modern psychology views nature and nurture as interconnected; both genetics and environment play a role in development b. Interactionism:Trains emerge from the dynamic interaction of genetics and environment. 5. When are most of the neurons in your brain made? a. Prenatal development:When most of the neurons inthe human brain are created i. Ex. between the third and sixth months of gestation b. Neurogenesis:The process of rapid formation of neurons;establishes the foundational structure of the brain c. ***The hippocampus continues to develop more neurons, which is involved in memory and learning*** 6. Describe the difference between assimilation and accommodation. a. Used by Jean Piaget to help explain how people incorporate new information b. Assimilation: i. The processes of integrating new information into existing cognitive schemas, without changing the schema itself ii. Ex. A young child sees a zebra for the first time and calls it a ‘horse’ because it fits their existing schema for four-legged animals 1. The child incorporates the zebra into their current understanding of animals that look like horses. c. Accommodation: i. The processes of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information that doesn't fit with what is already known ii. x. After learning that a zebra is not a horse, but a distinct animal, the E child adjusts their schema, creating a new category for zebrasseparate from horses. 7. What are the two ways that the brain matures, according to the textbook? Describe how each works. a. Synaptogenesis: i. The formation of new synapses (connections between neurons) in the brain, especially abundant during early development ii. During infancy and early childhood, neurons create a cast number of connections in response to sensory and learning experiences. This high amount of synaptic connections leads to greater flexibility in learning and adapting to the environment. iii. Synaptogenesis allows the brain to respond to new information and experiences, laying the foundation for learning and adapting in early life iv. As a child interacts with the world, the brain's neural network expands, supporting cognitive, motor, and emotional development. b. Myelination: i. The processes where axons (the long projections of neurons that carry signals) are coated with myelin, a fatty insulating substance. ii. Myelin acts like insulation on a wire, speeding up the transmission of electrical signals between neurons iii. The process begins in infancy but continues through adolescent and even into early adulthood iv. Myelination enhances processing speed, making communication between neurons more efficient. v. Crucial for complex functions like problem solving, impulse control, and decision making, which become more refined as the brian matures. 8. How does synaptic pruning relate to previous concepts of learning discussed in class (think: juggling)? a. When learning a new skill (juggling), the brain initially forms many new connections to manage the required coordination, timing, and hand-eye movements b. With continued practicum certain neural pathways are used more frequently and becomes stronger c. These pathways are repeatedly activated, reinforcing the specific sequences and patterns needed for juggling d. The brain's neural networks are reorganized to focus on the most effective pathways, leading to improved skill and consistency e. As the skin becomes more refined, synaptic pruning rescues less used or unnecessary connections, which may have been helpful when learning f. B y pruning these unused connections, the brian naturally optimizes the structure for efficiency g. This optimization makes juggling feel more natural and requires less conscious effort, demonstrating how pruning contributes to the mastery of a learned skill 9. What is constructivism, in Piagetian theory? a. Constructivism: i. The idea that children actively construct their understanding of the world through experiences and interactions ii. Children learn by engaging with their environment, manipulating objects, and observing outcomes. 1. They form mental models that they constantly test and adjust based on new experiences iii. Children are naturally curious and motivated to understand the world, driving them to explore and learn actively iv. A child learns about gravity by repeatedly dropping objects and observing that they fall. Through this active engagement, the child constructs an understanding of gravity. v. When children encounter something unfamiliar, like an animal they have never seen before, they may initially fit into an existing scheme ex. Calling a zebra a striped horse) 1. As they learn, they refine their schemas, and construct a more accurate understanding of different animals 10.What motivates children to learn, according to Piaget? a. Children are intrinsically motivated to learn due to their natural curiosity and desire to understand and make sense of the world i. Intrinsic Curiosity: 1. Piaget viewed children as naturally curious "little scientists" who want to explore and discover how things work. This curiosity drives them to ask questions, experiment, and actively engage with their surroundings, leading to learning. ii. Desire for Cognitive Equilibrium: 1. Where children strive to balance what they know and the new information they encounter 2. When a child encounters something surprising, it creates disequilibrium, prompting them to resolve this by adapting their schemes through assimilation (integrating new information) or accommodation (adjusting schemas). Lecture 12, Oct 8 1. W hy is testability important in distinguishing scientific knowledge from other forms of belief, such as religious beliefs or superstitions? a. Testability means that a claim can be empirically testing: i. It can be observed, measured, and subjected to experiments b. Scientific knowledge relies on the ability to collect data through controlled observation or experiments which can either support or refute a hypothesis i. Ex. A certain medication reduces symptoms of a disease 1. This can be tested through a clinical trials where outcomes and variables are measured to prove or disprove a claim c. Falsifiable:A hypothesis can be structured in a waythat it can be proven false if contrary evidence is found i. Ex. “All swans are white” 1. It is falsifiable because it can be tested 2. A black swan would disprove this claim d. Religious beliefs and superstitions are not testable or falsifiable e. Testability allows for reproducibility i. The ability for different researches to conduct the same test or experiment and obtain similar results ii. Ex. If a scientist tests the boiling point of water under standard conditions and finds it to be 100 C, other scientists should be able to reproduce the same result 2. How does the role of skepticism in science help ensure the reliability of knowledge? a. Skepticism drives scientists to critically examine the methods, data and conclusions of research b. Critical scrutiny helps us to identify flaws, biases, or errors in research i. Ex. If a new study claims a drug is a effective, a skeptical scientist would examine the studies design like the sample size, control conditions, and potential conflicts of interest, before accepting the results c. Ultimately, skepticism acts as a filter that removes unreliable or poorly supported claims, ensuring that only well-tested and verified knowledge is accepted d. Promoted through evaluation 3. How does Descartes' idea of vivid dreams that are indistinguishable from reality challenge our connection to the external world? What does this imply about the nature of perception? a. Descartes vivid dream hypothesis suggests that if dreams can feel as real as waking experiences, when our senses might not be reliable indicators of external reality b. If there is no clear distinction between dreaming and reality, than our senses are merely a product of the mind c. T his leads to the possibility that all of our sensory experiences could be illusions or constructs and we may never be certain of the existence of an external world based solely on our senses d. Descartes thought experiment challenges this assumption that our perceptions directly correspond to a reality e. Ultimately, descartes theory raises questions about the nature of reality and the limits of human perception 4. How can scientific knowledge be provisional, and why is this an important aspect of the scientific process? a. Scientific knowledge is considered provisional because it is always open to revision or change based off of new evidence of improved methods of research b. So, scientific conclusions are not seen as absolute truths but the best understanding we have at a given time, based on all available data, knowledge, and evidence. c. Knowing that nothing is for certain allows us to consider new evidence and constantly have new discoveries leading us to be more knowledge over time 5. What role should our university play in the development of knowledge, according to Benjamin Franklin’s vision? How does this relate to the modern purpose of higher education? a. Franklin proposed that Penn should educate young people not on just classical knowledge but also subjects directly related to everyday life like commerce, agriculture, navigation, and language b. In other words, he believed in a holistic education c. Franklin believed that education should instill a sense of civic duty and prepare students to contribute positively to the public good d. Penns emphasis on interdisciplinary research, community service, and diverse educational opportunities reflects the foundational goals of UPenn, which honors Franklin's legacy 6. What is the key difference between how knowledge is established in mathematics versus science? a. Mathematics: i. Axiomatic Systems: 1. Math is based on axioms 2. Fundamental assumptions of self evident truths that are accepted without proof ii. Deductive Reasoning: 1. The process of establishing knowledge in mathematics through deductive reasoning 2. Mathematics prove statements by showing that they logically follow from previously established truths or axioms iii. Proofs: 1. Step by step demonstration that a mathematical statement is true based on logical arguments b. Scientific Knowledge: i. Empirical Knowledge: 1. Relies on empirical evidence, knowledge through observations, experiments, and data collection ii. Inductive reasoning: 1. General principles are derived from specific observations iii. Falsifiability and Testing: 1. Needs to be testable and falsifiable 2. Should be able to conduct experiences that could potentially prove a hypothesis or theory wrong iv. Provisional Nature: 1. Scientific theories are alwaysprovisionalmeaningthat they can be modified or discarded if new evidence contradicts them c. Summary: i. Math:Relies on logical proofs and deductive reasoningwithin an axiomatic system ii. Science:Depends on empirical evidence, inductivereasoning,and the ability to be rested and falsified through observation and experimentation 7. What can make testing hypotheses challenging, and how do scientists resolve them? a. Many scientific studies, especially in fields like psychology, biology, or other social sciences, multiple variables can influence an outcome b. A resolution to this problem is to have controlled experiments where you isolate the independent variable and control the others. Cognitive Development II - October 10 1. Name the four Piagetian stages of cognitive development, the ages associated, and the kind of thinking associated with each. a. Sensorimotor Stage: i. Occurs from birth to 2 years old ii. Infants learn about the world through sensory experiences and motor actions (touching, feeling, seeing) iii. Development of object permanence occurs b. Preoperational Stage: i. From 2-7 years old ii. Children begin to use symbols like words and images to represent objects, supporting pretend play and imaginative thought iii. hey are egocentric (focused on themselves and can't recognize others T perspectives) iv. Thoughts are intuitive rather than logical c. Concrete Operational Stage: i. From 7-12 years old ii. Children develop the ability to think logically about concrete objects and events iii. Understand conservation, reversibility, and cause and effect iv. Mental operations like math are possible, but thinking is still tied to concrete objects rather than ideas d. Formal Operational Stage: i. Begins around 12 years old to adulthood ii. Abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking, and deductive reasoning iii. thinking about abstract concepts 2. Describe the A-and-not-B error, and what it explains about Piaget’s sensorimotor stage. a. Shows how infants develop object permanence i. The understanding the objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight ii. This error occurs between 8 and 12 months of age b. In the experiment, an infant watches an object (like a toy) which is hidden under a cover c. After repeatedly finding the object in location A, the object is then hidden at a new location, B d. Despite seeing the object placed at location B, the infants often reach for location A i. Shows that infants are developing an understanding of object permanence, but have not fully mastered it 3. From the textbook: Describe the theory of mind. Why is the theory of mind important for development? Consider the following experiment: i. Refers to the ability to understand that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions, and perspectives that are different than one's own ii. Allows individuals to predict and interpret the behaviors of others based of an understanding of their mental state b. A researcher asks a child to observe two puppets: Sally and Anne. The first puppet, Sally, places a pencil in a basket and then leaves the room. When Sally is gone, the second puppet, Anne, moves Sally’s pencil from the basket to a box. The researcher then asks the child, "Where will Sally look for her pencil when she comes back?" i. he typical three-year-old would answer in the box because they assume T Sally knows what they know ii. This age group struggles to understand that Sally has a different perspective and would not know if the pencil had moved iii. By age five, most children have developed a stronger theory of mind, and understand that others can hold beliefs different from their own 1. So, the five-year-old would say “In the basket” 4. From the textbook: Name the three main stages of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and the type of thinking associated with each. (According to Kohlberg. As the text points out, this is a classic theory but not one widely held today.) a. Preconventional Stage: i. Morality is viewed in terms of consequences and self-interest ii. Right and wrong are determined by the direct consequences of actions (punishment or reward) iii. Actions are judged based on the likelihood of punishment, with individuals acting to avoid negative outcomes iv. Ex. A child in this stage may think: 1. “If I don't steal, I won't get punished” 2. Focusing on avoiding punishment, rather than an ethical principle b. Conventional Stage: i. Morality is based on social rules and the desire to maintain social order ii. Right and wrong are determined by societal expectations and norms iii. Actions are considered moral if they align with societal expectations or please others iv. Ex. 1. “I shouldn't steal because it's against the law, and laws keep society in order” 2. Emphasizes duty and social rules c. Postconventional Stage: i. Morality is baked on abstract principles and personal ethical standards ii. Right and wrong are determined by reasoning that goes beyond society's laws or rules iii. Laes are seen as flexible tools to support human rights and welfare 1. Ex. 2. “Stealing to save a life might be justified because preserving life is a higher ethical principle than following the law” 3. A focus on universal moral principles over specific rules Stage Type of Thinking Example Reasoning Preconventional elf-interest and S I won't steal to avoid consequence-based reasoning punishment Conventional ocial approval and S I won't steal because it is rule-based reasoning against the law Postconventional bstract principles and A tealing may be justified to S personal ethics save a life 5. D escribe two examples that illustrate children's failures to conserve liquid and number (think about the video we watched in the lecture of the child being asked about conservation tasks). How did Piaget explain these failures of conservation? a. Failure to Conserve Liquid: i. A child is shown two identical glasses filled with the same amount of water ii. The child agrees that both glasses contain an equal amount iii. Then the experiment pours the water from one glass into a taller, narrower, glass, making the water level seem higher in the new glass iv. The child says that the taller glass has more water, focusing on the height of the liquid rather than understanding that the volume remains unchanged b. Failure to Conserve NUmber: i. A child is shown two rows of the same number of coins placed evenly in a line ii. The chill agrees that both rows have the same number of coins iii. The experimenter spreads out the coins in one of the words, making it longer than the other row, and asks the child which row has more coins iv. The child responds that the longer row has more coins v. Piaget says that the child focuses in the increased length of the row vi. They struggle with the concept of invariance, meaning they don't yet understand the quantity remains the same despite changes in the arrangement 6. Contrary to Piaget’s theories, modern developmental researchers have found that infants do have certain sophisticated intuitions about the world around them. Describe one study that tested Piaget’s theory of object permanence, as well as one study that examined infant intuitions about probability. a. Baillargeon's Impossible Event Study i. Renee Baillargeon used a violation of expectation method to test whether infants have a basic understanding of object permanence earlier than Piaget proposed ii. I nfants were shown a screen that rotated back and forth then an object was placed behind the screen iii. In the “impossible” condition, the screen rotated fully as if the object was not there, seemingly passing through it. In the “possible” condition, the screen stopped when it reached the hidden object, consistent with reality. iv. Infants as young as 4 months old looked significantly longer at the impossible vent than the possible one, indicating curiosity v. Suggests that they understand that the object continued to exist even when out of sight vi. Contrary to Piaget's claim that infants only develop object permanence around 8-12 months vii. Baillargeon's findings imply that infants have an understanding of object permanence much earlier than Piaget theorized suggesting that young children possess a more innate intuitive grasp of object permanence than Paiget said 7. We were going to have a question about the textbook’s explanation of ‘dynamic systems theory’ but the concept is pretty slippery and the text’s description isn’t great. So feel free to skim over that part. a. A framework in developmental psychology that describes how complex behaviors emerge from the interaction of multiple factors over time b. Development is not linear or predetermined, instead, it arises from the interplay between an individual's biology, their environment, and their specific experiences 8. Unlike adults or older children, young infants can’t use language or other signals (e.g., pointing) to show their preferences and cognitive ability. How do researchers study perception in infants? a. Habituation-Dishabituation Method i. In habituation studies, researchers present an infant with the same stimulus repeatedly until the infant’s attention wanes (indicating habituation). Then, they introduce a new stimulus and observe whether the infant’s attention is renewed (dishabituation). ii. If infants show renewed interest in the new stimulus, it suggests they can distinguish between the original and new stimuli. This method is used to study infants’ ability to perceive differences in color, shapes, and sounds. iii. Ex. An infant is shown a blue square repeatedly and then presented with a red square iv. An increase in attention to the red square indicates that the infant perceives a difference between the colors b. Preferential Looking Technique i. Infants are presented with two stimuli side by side, and researchers measure which stimulus the infant looks at longer ii. I nfants tend to look longer at objects they find more interesting or complex, indicating preference iii. In studies where infants are shown an image of a human face next to a scrambled version of the face, infants tend to look longer at the organized face, suggesting an innate preference for face-like patterns. c. VIolation-of-Expectation Method: i. This technique relies on the principle that infants will look longer at events that surprise them. Researchers show infants a scenario with an "expected" outcome and an "unexpected" outcome, then measure how long the infants look at each. ii. Longer-looking times at the unexpected outcome indicate that infants have certain expectations about how the world works, which is violated by the surprising outcome. iii. In Renée Baillargeon’s famous object permanence studies, infants were shown a screen rotating as if an object behind it had disappeared. Infants looked longer at this "impossible" event, indicating that they understood the object should still exist even if it is out of sight. . Eye-Tracking: d i. In language studies, eye-tracking has shown that infants can follow mouth movements while listening to speech sounds, suggesting an early sensitivity to language and visual speech cues. Lecture 14, Cognitive Development (continued) and Language I - 10/15/24 1. Piaget found that children younger than 7 years old fail the "3-mountain" task, in which they are shown a diorama of a mountain scene, from one side, and are asked to report what a doll (sitting on the other side) would see. Piaget interpreted this finding to mean that children are egocentric (they cannot put themselves in another person's shoes). Should we agree with Piaget's conclusion? Why or why not? In your justification, describe the findings of a simpler study using a card with different images on either side. a. Task: Children under 7 view a mountain diorama andare asked to describe what a doll on the opposite side would see. They often fail, describing only their own perspective. b. Piaget’s Interpretation: Piaget saw this as evidenceofegocentrism, where young children struggle to adopt others’ viewpoints. c. Alternative View: A simpler study using a double-sidedcard (with different images on each side) showed that even young children could identify what another person would see. This suggests Piaget may have overestimated egocentrism, as task complexity might affect children’s performance. 2. D escribe Steinberg’s proposal for the neurological basis of risky behavior in teenagers. a. Proposal: Steinberg suggests that teens’ risky behaviorstems from animbalance in brain development—the limbic system (reward sensitivity)matures earlier than the prefrontal cortex (impulse control). b. Implication: This developmental gap may lead teensto prioritize rewards over caution, explaining higher risk-taking in adolescence. 3. Describe schemas, assimilation, and accommodation, with reference to children’s acquisition of knowledge. a. Schemas: Mental frameworks that help children organizeknowledge (e.g., a schema for “dog”). b. Assimilation: Integrating new information into existingschemas (calling all four-legged animals “dogs”). c. Accommodation: Modifying schemas to fit new information(learning that a “cat” is different from a “dog”). These processes support children’s knowledge acquisition. 4. How are various aspects of cognitive capacities affected as we age? What is something that can help? a. Effects: Aging affects cognitive areas like processing speed and memory recall, though crystallized intelligence (knowledge) often remains stable or improves. b. Improvement: Engaging in mentally stimulating activities can help preserve cognitive function. 5. Why do older people tend to be more “present-focused” than younger people? a. Explanation: Older adults are more present-focused,likely due to agreater awareness of limited time. This motivates them toprioritize current emotional satisfaction and meaningful experiences over future planning. 6. Describe some experimental findings that might help explain why ‘peak’ happiness is found between about 65 and 75 years of age. (Think: Mather et al. and Notthoff & Carstensen.) a. Findings: Research by Mather et al. and Notthoff &Carstensen suggests that older adults experience higher happiness, possibly due to improved emotional regulation, focus on positive experiences, and reduced stress over material achievements. 7. From the textbook, Describe the theory of linguistic relativism, and describe Whorf’s “strong” version and the weaker version. a. Definition: Linguistic relativism posits that languageinfluences thought. b. Strong Version (Whorf): Language determines thought,limiting cognitive ability to linguistic constructs. c. Weaker Version: Language shapes habitual thought patternsbut does not restrict all cognitive possibilities. 8. From the textbook, define morphemes, phonemes, and syntax. a. Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning (e.g., “un-”in “undo”). b. Phonemes: The smallest sound units that distinguishwords (e.g., “b” vs. “p” in “bat” and “pat”). c. Syntax: The rules for arranging words into sentences, enabling structured communication. Lecture 15, Martin Seligman: Positive Psychology and Beyond, 10/17 1. What is positive psychology? a. Definition: Positive psychology is a branch of psychologyfocused on studying and promoting factors that contribute to human flourishing and well-being, rather than just addressing mental illness. b. Example: Research on gratitude practices to increase happiness and life satisfaction. 2. Define the PERMA model of well-being, and list some of its causal outcomes. (Can you think of all five parts?) a. Definition: ThePERMA model(Seligman) identifies five components that contribute to well-being: b. Positive Emotion: Experiencing joy, gratitude, and other positive emotions. c. Engagement: Being fully absorbed in activities (flow). d. Relationships: Having meaningful connections with others. e. Me aning: Finding purpose or significance in life. f. Accomplishment: Achieving goals and a sense of success. g. Causal Outcomes: Increased life satisfaction, better health, and resilience. i. Example: Someone practicing PERMA by setting personal goals (Accomplishment) and building supportive relationships (Relationships). 3. Describe active-constructive responding, and contrast it with the three other ways to respond to someone else’s good news. a. Definition: Active-constructive responding is a way of engaging enthusiastically with someone else’s good news, showing interest and positivity. b. Other Responses: i. Passive-Constructive: Polite but subdued (e.g., “That’s nice”). ii. Active-Destructive: Undermines the news (e.g., “That sounds stressful!”). iii. Passive-Destructive: Ignoring or changing the topic. c. Example: Actively responding to a friend’s promotion with “That’s amazing! Tell me all about it!” instead of a brief “Good for you.” 4. What are some domains in which positive psychology has been applied? Discuss an application of positive psychology, as presented in lecture. a. Domains: Applied in education, healthcare, workplaces, and therapy. b. E xample: In schools, positive psychology interventions like teaching growth mindset can improve students’ resilience and motivation. 5. Blyler & Seligman (2023) tested whether an AI system could take a back-and-forth chat with users into a useful personal narrative specific to the user. Did this work? a. Finding: Yes, the studyfound that an AI system could effectively create personal narratives through back-and-forth interactions, helping users gain self-insight and clarity about their life experiences. 6. From the textbook, describe cognitive appraisal, and the two main types of coping strategies. 7. From the textbook, what is the broaden-and-build theory (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004)? a. Definition:Cognitive appraisalis the process of interpreting and assessing a stressful situation. b. Two Coping Strategies: i. Problem-focused coping: Tackling the problem directly (e.g., creating a plan to solve an issue). ii. Emotion-focused coping: Managing emotional responses (e.g., seeking social support). iii. Example: When faced with a work deadline, using problem-focused coping by organizing a task list, or using emotion-focused coping by talking to a friend to relieve stress. c. Definition: This theory proposes that positive emotionsbroaden one’s awareness and encourage novel, varied thoughts and actions, which over time build lasting personal resources. d. Example: Joy might encourage exploration and socialconnection, leading to strong social networks and emotional resilience. 7. From the textbook, define “general adaptation syndrome” (Selye, 1936). a. Definition: A model of the body’s response to stress,consisting of three stages: Alarm(initial reaction),Resistance(adaptation toongoing stress), and Exhaustion(depletion of resources). b. Example: Prolonged work stress leading to initialalertness, followed by coping efforts, and eventually burnout if stress is not managed. Lecture 16, Language II, 10/22/24 1. What is the difference between vowels and consonants in terms of airflow? What are the two dimensions we consider when talking about consonant sounds? What are the dimensions we consider when talking about different vowel sounds? a. Vowels: Produced withunrestricted airflowthroughthe vocal tract. b. Consonants: Produced withconstricted airflowat specific points in the vocal tract. c. Example: The vowel sound in "ah" flows freely, while the "t" in "top" has a temporary stop in airflow. 2. What is coarticulation? Why does it occur? How do listeners make up for the effects of coarticulation on pronunciation? a. Two Dimensions: i. Place of Articulation: Where the airflow restriction occurs (e.g., lips for "p," tongue for "t"). ii. Manner of Articulation: How airflow is constricted (e.g., stop, fricative). b. Example: “B” is a bilabial stop, while “f” is a labiodental fricative. 3. Explain how the arbitrariness of sounds to word meanings is useful. 4. How does syntax work? a. Dimensions: i. Height: How high or low the tongue is (e.g., high in “beat” vs. low in “bat”). ii. Backness: How far back in the mouth the tongue is (e.g., back in “boot” vs. front in “bit”). 4. What is the phrase structure of syntax and how does it allow us to convey ideas that have never been expressed before? a. Definition: Coarticulation is when sounds overlap during speech, making each sound slightly influenced by the surrounding sounds. b. Why It Occurs: It’s more efficient and faster for smooth pronunciation. c. Listener Adaptation: Listeners use context clues to interpret coarticulated sounds accurately. d. Example: The “n” sound in “can” sounds different when followed by a “t” (e.g., “can take”) vs. a “p” (e.g., “can play”). 5. Describe top-down and bottom-up language processing. a. Definition: There’s no inherent connection between a sound and its meaning, which allows for flexibility in language. b. Usefulness: Allows for diverse language creation and learning. c. Example: The word “dog” has no natural link to the animal itself, so different languages use different sounds. 6. In class, Professor Swingley talked about research that used eye-tracking to record where participants' visual gaze went when they heard the beginning of a statement like, "I wanted a turn..." He also gave some examples of hallucinatory word-finding in backward musical recordings. What important features of language processing do these examples demonstrate in common? a. Syntax: The rules for structuring words into sentences. b. Phrase Structure: Organizes language into units (phrases) to form complex ideas. c. Novel Expression: Allows us to construct sentences never . h d eard before. e. Example: “The curious cat sat quietly” can be easily understood due to s yntactical rules. 7. What is incremental parsing in sentence comprehension? a. Top-Down Processing: Understanding language basedoncontextand prior knowledge. b. Bottom-Up Processing: Interpreting language basedonincoming sensory data (e.g., sounds). c. Example: Hearing the beginning of a sentence and predictingits end (top-down), or recognizing each word based on sounds (bottom-up). 8. Does language affect thought? This theory has two flavors: that learning a particular language makes you think a certain way; or that learning any language makes thought possible. Give an illustrative example of each idea. a. Language-Specific Thinking: Language shapes thought(e.g., Inuit languages have multiple words for snow, influencing perception). b. Language-Enables Thought: Language provides a structurefor complex thought, enabling abstract ideas. c. Example: Learning a language enables concepts like time and quantity. 9. From the reading, describe why the hypothesis that “we think in language” is false. a. Why It’s False: Thoughts can occur innon-linguisticforms(e.g., visual or sensory images), and preverbal children and animals also think without formal language. Lecture 13, Oct 24 1. How do Paul Grice's principles of cooperative conversation apply to the following exchange? a. Did your landlord finally get your toilet fixed? B: It looks like I'll be staying in a hotel this weekend. i. Paul's principles of cooperative conversation (Gricean Maxims) help to understand how implicature is communicated between speakers ii. Quantity, Quality, Relation, and Manner iii. Maxim of Quantity (information): 1. Advises producing just the right amount of information – not too much not too little 2. B’s response provides enough information for A to infer the situation without over-explaining 3. By mentioning the hotel stay, B conveys the state of the unresolved issue iv. Maxim of Quality (Truthfulness): 1. Encourages speakers to provide truthful information and avoid statements for which they lack evidence a. Bs response implies truthfulness b. S uggest a truthful, fact-based response about Bs future plans c. The statement is likely grounded in B's experience with the landlord's delay in repair v. Macism of Relation (Relevance): 1. Suggest that the contribution should be relevant to the topic at hand 2. B doesn't directly answer As question about the toilet being fixed but implies an answer through a relevant statement about staying in a hotel vi. Maxim of Manner (Clarity): 1. Recommends avoiding ambiguity 2. Bs response is indirect but not unclear 3. The phrasing is specific enough for A to infer the unspoken message without ambiguity 2. How does language affect our thoughts? What’s the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, in weaker forms and strong forms? a. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggest that the structure and vocabulary of a language shape its speaker's perception of reality and cognitive processes b. Strong Form:Linguistic Determinism: i. Argues that language entirely determines thought ii. According to this view, people can only think in ways that their language allows or enables iii. If this were true, it would mean certain concepts or ways of thinking are only possible to speakers of specific languages iv. Ex. language has no future tense, its speaker might have difficulty conceptualizing or planning for the future c. Weaker Form:Linguistic Relativity: i. Proposes that language influences thought and perception but does not determine it entirely ii. The view suggests that speakers of different languages may think in different ways iii. Ex. Studies show that language can affect how people perceive color, spatial orientation, and time. d. In itsstrong form, the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (linguistic determinism) suggests that language limits and determines thought, a view that is largely unsupported. In itsweaker form(linguistic relativity), it proposes that language influences thought patterns and perceptions, a view supported by evidence showing language can affect specific cognitive processes like color discrimination, spatial orientation, and temporal perception. 3. Give an example in which the language that someone speaks has an influence on how he or she performs in a task. a. Spatial Navigation and Cardinal Directions: i. In languages like Guugu Yimirthirr (spoken by Indigenous in Australia), speakers use cardinal directions (north, south) instead of relative directions ii. hen asked to arrange objects or navigate spaces, these speakers W consistently use cardinal directions iii. Studies show that speakers of such languages outperform others in spatial orientation tasks because their language requires them to have a heightened sense of geographic awareness. For instance, when given a set of photos and asked to arrange them in a sequence based on direction, speakers of cardinal-based languages are more accurate than speakers of relative-direction languages, who may find it challenging to keep track of directions without reorienting themselves. 4. How does infants' ability to discriminate phonemes change over time? a. At birth, infants have a remarkable ability to distinguish phonemes from the world languages b. Ex. a four-month-old Japanese infant can distinguish between the English “R” and “I” sounds even though this distinction does not exist in Japan c. Around6 to 8 months, infants begin to focus on the phonemes that are more common in their native language(s) and start losing sensitivity to sounds not present in them. d. By9 to 12 months, infants become better at discriminating phonemes within their native language and less able to detect those from other languages. This process is known asperceptual narrowing. e. Example: By around 10 months, an English-speaking infant may lose the ability to distinguish between Hindi phonemes that they could distinguish at 6 months. However, they become more attuned to English-specific phonemes, like the distinction between the vowel sounds in "bat" and "bet." 5. Distinguish between the "football throwing" model of conversation vs. the conversation as a project. a. Football Throwing: i. Conversations as a back-and-forth exchange similar to players throwing a football to one another b. Conversation as a project: i. Views conversations as a collaborative project where both participants work together to build meaning ii. In a brainstorming session, two colleagues contribute ideas by expanding on each other’s thoughts, asking questions, and refining the concepts together. The conversation flows naturally with contributions that shape and build the shared “project” of the discussion. 6. What are the empiricist and nativist perspectives on language learning? a. Empiricist:Language learning is primarily the result of environmental input and experience i. Children learn language through exposure to linguistic input and by using general cognitive mechanisms ii. Imitation: Children learn language by mimicking the sounds and structures they hear around them. iii. Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement and feedback from caregivers help children associate words and structures with their meanings, shaping their language use. iv. tatistical Learning: Research shows that infants can detect patterns in S speech sounds, such as which sounds frequently occur together, helping them segment words and phrases from the continuous stream of language. 1. Ex. From an empiricist view, a child learns to say “dog” by hearing the word repeatedly associated with the animal, recognizing patterns in speech, and gradually refining their usage through feedback. b. Nativist Perspective: i. Humans are born with an innate predisposition for language learning ii. Language acquisition is guided by inborn linguistic structures or cognitive mechanisms iii. Universal Grammar (UG): Proposed by Noam Chomsky, UG is the idea that all humans are born with an underlying set of grammatical rules common to all languages. This internal “blueprint” guides children in learning the specific rules of their native language. iv. Language Acquisition Device (LAD): Chomsky also suggested that the brain has a specialized mechanism, the LAD, that allows children to detect grammatical structures and acquire language efficiently, even from limited input. v. Poverty of the Stimulus: Nativists argue that children often produce complex sentences they have never directly heard, suggesting that environmental input alone cannot explain language acquisition. vi. Example: A nativist would argue that children learn grammatical structures, like subject-verb agreement, not by explicit instruction or reinforcement, but through their inherent ability to identify and apply these patterns due to an innate grammar framework. 7. Three arguments for the nativist perspective of language involve unrelated language similarity, poverty of the stimulus, and animal communication. Summarize each of these arguments. a. Unrelated Language SImuilarity: i. Theuniversal similaritiesfound across unrelated languages suggest that all humans share an inherent, biologically-based capacity for language. Linguists have observed that, despite vast cultural and linguistic differences, languages worldwide share certain structural features, such as nouns and verbs, hierarchical syntax, and the ability to form complex sentences. b. Poverty of the Stimulus: i. Suggests that the language input children receive is often limited, ambiguous, or incomplete, yet they are still able to acquire complex grammar rules. ii. For example, children can form sentences they’ve never heard before, follow grammatical structures without explicit teaching, and quickly develop language fluency. c. Animal Communication: i. Although some animals can learn symbolic communication (like chimpanzees using sign language), their communication systems lack the c omplexity, structure, and generative capacity of human language. Animals do not naturally develop hierarchical syntax, recursive structures, or the ability to create an infinite number of unique sentences. 8. How do children learn words and develop their ability to produce speech? a. Early Recognition and Babbling (0–10 months): Infants recognize familiar sounds and begin babbling (e.g., "ba-ba"), experimenting with speech sounds. Caregiver responses encourage continued practice. b. First Words (10–15 months): Around their first year, infants start using single words for familiar objects, sometimes overextending (calling all animals "dog") or underextending (using "dog" only for the family pet) meanings. c. Vocabulary Explosion (18–24 months): A rapid increase in vocabulary occurs, with children learning new words quickly usingfastmapping(linking new words to objects after minimal exposure). d. Combining Words (24 months): Children form two-word phrases (e.g., "more juice") using basic grammar. Thistelegraphic speechincludes essential words while omitting smaller ones. e. Grammar Refinement (3–5 years): Language use becomes more complex as children create full sentences, refine grammar, and develop conversational skills. Errors likeoverregularization(e.g., “goed” for "went") reflect their understanding of language rules. eversability R Convervation → Water Example Linguistic determinism B) Linguistic relativity Coarticulation The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Exemplar theory Incremental parsing Self-serving bias Top down processing Bottom up processing Feature Dedection Theory Context Dependent memeroy Justice reasoning Elaborative rehearsal Fundamental attribution error Encoding specificity principle Incremental parsing vs top down processing State-dependent memory Context-dependent memory Encoding specificity principle
