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Natural Science VS Social Science LESSON 1: THE QUANTI-QUALI DIVIDE NS is Causality while SS is Correlation Mas mahirap i-distinguish kung ano and IV and WHY SOCIAL RESEARCH? DV sa SS...

Natural Science VS Social Science LESSON 1: THE QUANTI-QUALI DIVIDE NS is Causality while SS is Correlation Mas mahirap i-distinguish kung ano and IV and WHY SOCIAL RESEARCH? DV sa SS because SS is a human-thinking subject. Humans have intentionality, will and rationality. They can retroactive; alter their behavior when they are aware that they’re being observed The margin of error in NS is less than 1% because we’re talking about immediate lives here The margin of error in SS is 3 to 5% because humans are uncontrollable Causality VS Correlation Causality = the IV has an effect to DV Correlation = we may presume that IV has a relationship with DV Two components of Correlation Association = how strength or weak is the relationship of IV and DV Direction = directly or inversely proportional Chismis will only be considered as science when Example: Effect of laziness in low grades. IV is you apply methods the laziness; DV is the low grades. The direction In SS, we debunk dominant stories will be—the more you spend less time on studying, the more likely you’ll have low grades Bruno Latour “We have never been modern” , 1993 SCIENTIFIC METHOD There shouldn't be order or rank between NS and SS Ceteris Paribus All things are helf constant HOW IS IT DIFFERENT FROM OTHER WAY OF KNOWING? Scientific Method What makes SS science is through the scientific method The first point of science is to (1) problematize and by being curious. Problematizing involves a lot of philosophical questions (2) To explore the existing body of knowledge. (3) You make assumptions, propositions or what Independent Variable we call hypothesis building Presumed cause (4) You’ll test your hypothesis through survey, interview, observation, experiment, content Dependent Variable analysis Presumed outcome (5) Lastly, you’ll make preliminary conclusions.  Why preliminary lang? Because science should be falsifiable or questionable We need theory because we need a short-hand to falsify previous knowledge. New theories should relate to your conclusion Karl Popper Once science is no longer questionable, it becomes dogma/doctrine Auguste Comte Ginawang religion ang Social Physics Sa theological stage, people purely rely on religion Sa metaphysical stage, philosophical na but the prob is wala pa ring methods dito Emmanuel Kant Categorical Imperative = do not use people as the means of your ends THE QUALI-QUANTI DEBATE Mixed methods are encouraged Quanti answers the What and Why Quali answers the 5W’s and 1H SETTLING THE DEBATE 1 All qualitative data can be coded quantitatively Quali becomes Quanti with frequencies Correlation of Matrix—similarity of themes But within the themes, we should include the applicability of juxtaposition You can make themes by finding the similarities and differences of the answers Juxtaposition Compare = you find similarities Contrast = you find differences  SETTLING THE DEBATE 2 Quantitative Research in confirmatory and deductive in nature while Qualitative Research is exploratory and inductive in nature But both can be either confirmatory and deductive, and exploratory and inductive Deductive VS Inductive Deductive = structured approach (general questions to specific conclusion) Inductive = observing specific data and identifying broader patterns (specific question to general conclusion/findings) ASSUMPTIONS The heart of the quali-quanti debate is philosophical, not methodological Different epistemological assumptions = (Post) Positivism VS Constructionism Gabriel Tarde VS Durkheim Tarde’s monads (individual) = constructionist Durkheim’s social facts = positivist All quantitative data is based on qualitative judgment Wilhelm Windelband Quantitative data has stories Nomothetic = making generalizations; laws Likert scale (quanti) Numbers can’t be interpreted without Ideographic = making meaning in a given set of understanding the assumptions which underly research targets; particular knowledge, them subjective, unique cases (quali) Qualitative judgment have many layers in one question PSYCH AND ECON TWO COMMON MYTHS Mahirap gumawa ng law sa SS because of retroactivity Sa psych, they manipulate variables through experiments Sa econ, they suspense variables  But the problem with these two is they’re unnatural Direct VS Indirect Observation Direct = andon ka; they know that they are being HOW QUANTI DATA ARE GATHERED? observed so mataas ang chance ng retroactivity which may tendency na mag change yung behavior Indirect = issue of ethics; may consent ba na i- observe mo sila; they don’t know that they are being observed (cctv cam) Note: Sa Personal Observation, yes may retroactive sya but informed—you’ll see overtime ung binago nilang changes. May retroactive but you also see the changes—but it is costly because you need to invest a lot of time and money to observe them ANALYSIS OF DATA Survey (2 R’s) Quality of Survey Retrospective = you only analyze the IV and DV only after the interaction or when it is done Representativeness = strongest / weakest / related factors Used to determine representativeness; ano ang mahina and malakas na factors Association = gaano ka significant yung relationship Direction = positive or negative Experiment Variability You’re not only looking at the after but also the before Gaano ka kaiba, ka-spread, kalapit, kalayo yung You have a control group and you study the pre distribution and post experiment The reason is you want to avoid the 3rd variable Univariate problem Simple tabulation Placebo effect Measure of central tendencies (mean, median,mode) Content Analysis Mean = aka average. Add all the numbers then Historical materials, film, comics, printed divide it kung ilan yung numbers Meta-Analysis = you let other researchers Median = aka the middle number in a sorted list interpret your data. Data sharing of numbers. But if even sila, add the two middle You manipulate results here; may results na nung numbers then divide it by 2. una but may other researchers na mag cconduct Mode = kung ano ung pinaka frequent na ulit lumalabas Nangyayari here ung mirage Dito, kinukuha rin ung % Mirage = an illusion that occurs when light rays % formula = observed cases multiply by total no. are refracted of cases then divide it by 100 Extraneous variable = any variable not being 2nd Quartile = another term for median investigated that has the potential to affect the We need to get the median to avoid the effect of outcome of a research study outliers (extreme cases in distribution) Observation VS Participant Observation Bivariate Observation = you tabulate things here All about standard deviation; kung gaano sila ka- Participant = you are participating while doing the spread, kalapit or kalayo observation; it can be retroactive, but you can Parametric Tests = interval ratio; you need to test see change over the time the normality of the curve if skewed ba or not Non-Parametric Tests = you’ll group them then  from interval-ratio, you decode it into nominal Mas suitable ang non-para sa social sciences Multivariate Mag f-factor analysis here. You’ll see the interaction of dependent to independent HOW QUALI DATA ARE GATHERED In-depth Interviews Wala kang structured interviews but only guide questions Sa quali, they call “participants” and “interlocutors” because in this way, parang walang hierarchy or perception na mas knowledgeable ung researchers compare sa ini- interview Sa quanti, they call “respondents” and “informants” Participant Observation Gold standard ng qualitative Unstructured Interviews Parang naki-upo ka lang sa mga random people sa labas Case Studies Ginagamit sa unique/deviant examples Ex: babae na may HIV (usually kasi lalaki ang nagkakaroon). Pag ito, more on life history ka Mas onti yung sample mo here since unique Approach examples Aka epistemology QUALITATIVE APPROACHES Sociology VS Anthropology or Ethno (?) Socio = seeing the general in the particular; process of social change Anthro = how particular animate the general; despite the changes, what remained from the past Socio = patterns of social change Anthro = what are the changes that happened; focus on specific cases Phenomenology We’re talking about the lived experiences here Sa psych, naka focus sila sa Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) CBT = what u think affects what u feel and what u feel affects your behavior BUT the thing is wala here ung social forces unlike sa socio Ethnography and Field Research Not all field research is Ethnography and not all ethno is field research The difference is investment in time; di lahat ng field research is ng i-invest ng mahabang time unlike sa ethnography Grounded Theory An approach and NOT method Requires open-mindedness when gathering data but not empty-mindedness Here, you suspend your theories. You generate theory from your observations / interview kaya nga “from the ground” then you analyze your themes. Mag t-theoretical sampling ka here Theoretical Sampling = the theme you have satisfied your theory; the gathered data satisfied the criteria TRADITIONAL CRITERIA FOR JUDGING QUANTI AND QUALI Framework of Validity Ang nag ffocus usually dito ay quanti researchers. Some quali researchers reject it. Validity VS Reliability Validity = All about the findings and accuracy Reliability = All about the instruments and consistency External Validity If generalizable ba yung findings mo. Characteristics of your findings that can be applied to another setting; transferable ba yung finding mo. This can only be achieved if tama  sampling mo This is about generalization Na-achieve lamang kung tama ang sampling. Kung hindi tama, hindi ka makaka-generalize Internal Validity How credible your findings Gaano ba katanggap tanggap Credibility – if mukha ba syang imbento Credibility VS Reliability Credibility = qualitative; aka Internal Validity Reliability = quantitative Transferability You need to convince them that you can do it Generalizable ba; aka External Validity If you are asking the right questions, kung na Dependability synthesize mo ba yung literature ng tama, kung Nakadepende sa context clear ba yung path nyo How dependable are your results It describes the problem, its importance, methodology Confirmability Present or future tense It’s about objectivity Confirm your results How reliable your questionnaire Dapat hindi declarative (boses tapos na) Wag lang bumase sa past studies Tenses matter! FOUR TYPES OF VALIDITY (CICE) Present or future oriented dapat Conclusion Validity PARTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL All about findings and relationships of variables Internal Validity Tama ba yung design Pumapasok din here ung credibility Construct Validity How reliables your questionnaire or your measurement Pumapasok din here ung reliability External Validity Tama ba yung sampling LESSON 2: THE RESEARCH PROBLEM WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROPOSAL  Karamihan ng quantitative, they always analyze factors and indicators Introduction Must be very convincing. It requires you a lot of time. ABSTRACT Hahabulin mo lahat ng ideas mo from statement of problem pababa Last gawin yung intro! Significance of the Study Theoretical significance and practical significance. What can it contribute to the body of sociological knowledge Framework Ipapakita pano mo siya iooperationalize. Anong mga theory nagma make sense doon. INTRODUCTION Variables & Hypothesis Assumption ng hypo and var. Hypothesis - state the association and direction.  SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Must be very convincing It requires you a lot of time Hahabulin mo lahat ng ideas mo from statement of problem pababa Last gawin yung intro STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY VARIABLES & HYPOTHESIS METHODS OF THE STUDY  REFERENCES TIMETABLE Literature Collection of studies already published on a topic Literature Review It is a carefully crafted summary of the recent studies conducted on a topic that includes key findings and methods researchers used.  Google Scholar Goals It is useful for academic searches because it not To be familiar only provides access to academic or research Path papers for free but also offers links to full-text Integrate and summarize PDF files. Learn Primary Documents ERIC, JSTOR ERIC and JSTOR are similar to Google Scholar Secondary Documents: produced after the event in that when you search for a topic, they provide various resources like journals and articles Periodicals related to your search. Periodicals are called such because they are published periodically, whether daily, weekly, Research Gate monthly, quarterly, or annually. They are focuses on academic research and serves as a summaries created by journalists and come in professional network for researchers and various types, including mass-market scientists to collaborate and share their studies. newspapers and magazines, popular social science publications, opinion magazines, and Z-Library academic journals. However, they are not ideal an underground online library that provides free for preparing a literature review because they access to scholarly articles, academic books, and often lack essential details about the studies they general literature through file- sharing. cover. Web of Science Books Books convey various types of information, a citation database where you can search for a stimulate thinking, and provide entertainment. specific author or find other research that cites that When conducting a literature review, you might author. It allows you to view the entire citation list come across books that contain collections of for each article and connect it to other research articles or reports. These can be useful in that uses the same sources. This is useful for strengthening your research. determining the breadth of your research topic. Dissertations Steps in conducting a systematic review: Theses presented by graduate students are the STEP 1: Refine & Define a Topic research projects required for earning a doctorate (PhD). These are essential pieces of work that STEP 2: Design a Search students must complete as part of their academic STEP 1: Locate Research Reports requirements. LESSON 3: RESEARCH VOCABULARY Government Documents ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS/NOTES reports of research sponsored and published by the government or international agencies, such Two Ways You Can Show Your Bias (Max Weber) as the United Nations (UN) and the World Bank. o When you conduct policy research Policy Research – moral judgment; stimulate ideas in aid of legislation; analyzing intervention Policy Reports / Presented Papers Ex: Assessing for the sake ma-analyze yung Policy reports and presented papers are system ng DepEd, pero in the end the expected published by research institutes and policy result is how will your research aid the system. centers. These include oral reports that have You have moral judgment because you need to been made available as written documents for direct the morally expected law. those who were unable to attend a meeting or o When you select your sites, informants, presentation. Because of this, policy reports and and the methods you want to employ on presented papers can be challenging to obtain. your study Normative Judgment  Identify positive / negative judgment o Homeostasis – self-regulating process by which an organism tends to maintain stability Dyad and Triad while adjusting to conditions that are best for As the group increases, (quality) bonds decrease, its survival however, it is more stable. Dyad is the foundation of formal sociology Construct Validity (Measurement) Habang dumadami yung sample size, dumadami The way you measure it, the individual and yung dyad collective belief is hindi naman yung hinahanap Formula: D = [n (n-3)/2)] + N mo Increase the quantity = stabilize but decrease The questions is gaano siya ka esoteric emotional attachment o Esoteric – intended for/likely to be understood by only a small number of people with a YIN AND YANG OF QUANTI RESEARCH specialized knowledge / interest; not a popular belief because somehow contradictory sa mainstream culture. Tama ba questionnaire mo? Index – components ng variables Scale – attribution, assigning of value to measure index Ine-ensure mor in yung reliability, kung reliable ba yung measurement mo External Validity (Sampling) You can’t generalize when there is an imbalance in representation, may mali sa sampling You want to achieve EPSEM (Equal Probability of Selection Method) Validity RESEARCH VOCABULARY To assess kung may truth ba pinag-aaralan Purpose of quantitative research methods is to BROAD TERMS strengthen the validly of their research Validity is about sa pagiging accurate Reliability isyung pagiging consistent Conclusion Validity (Analysis) May relasyon ba yung variables na pinag aaralan niya Kung walang relasyon, wala kang conclusion. Wala kang conclusion validity Internal Validity (Design) If may conclusion ka na, the second question is you need to ask in terms of design Theoretical If tama ba yung timpla mo ng quanti and quali mo You have prior knowledge when you think about sa pagkalap ng data the relationship of your variables. Survey ba ang tamang design, ganoirn Those prior knowledge You need to check if the design makes sense sa May pinagbasehan yung sinasabi mo kung ano pinag aaralan mo In experiment - you always look into Empirical consideration the pre and post experiment Nakabase ka lang sa sarili mo at hindi sa theory In survey - representative and retrospective mo o You only analyze independent and dependent Points of knowledge, prior knowledge only after nakainteract yung dependent sa Rene Descartes independent Comte – nakabase on empirical concepts o Placebo effect – testing for new drug for one Durkheim – the only things you can study diseases; hindi alam ng patient ano ang empirically are social facts because they are nilalagay external to the individual Sociologists should… You test the theory through your empirical observations We are theoretically grounded but empirically driven Probabilistic Relationship of variables Not certain pero you have inferences sa independent and dependent variable There is only a probability that this variable influences the other variables Causal Mahirap i-establish sa social science kasi we are dealing with humans (thinking subjects) Eliminate the third variable problem Correlation & Elective Affinity Correlation – may tendency mag-assign ka ng direction; you expect you have a presumed outcome and cause Elective Affinity – ex: hindi sinasabi ni Weber na dahil sa protestant ethic kaya may capitalism; TIME IN RESEARCH sabay sila umangat, but never mentioned that this is connected to the other TYPES OF STUDIES Hindi pwede maging longitudinal ang cross- sectional, but pwede the other way around VARIABLES  Relationship Not all relationships are causal Mas madali ma-establish correlation How people vary Causal Relationship Variable is connected to attributes Madali ang causality sa natural science kasi non- Attributes = specific value of variable thinking subjects (they couldn’t manipulate their answer, no retroactivity) TYPES OF VARIABLES Difficult to establish causation and correlation kasi scientists ourselves, we have our own biases No judgment dapat Third-Variable Problem Ex. numbers of hours to length of hair However, there may be an unobservable variable there Esperiousness Mirage in an analysis (refraction of light) They tried to eliminate third variable problem In psychology, they used quasi experiment o Ex. When you introduce a drug, you get three groups: one with the intervention, one is the placebo group. one is without CONDITIONS OF ATTRIBUTES intervention. It is to know if same lang ba yung effect nung gamot sa placebo, kasi if so, edi hindi siya effective In a natural science setting, you don't control the group PATTERNS OF RELATIONSHIP (Directionality) TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS Positive is directly proportional, nega is inversely Law of supply is positive Law of demand is negative  Kung ano yung name ng law (ie. law of supply), then iyon ang dependent variable (supply is your Direction dependent variable, price is your independent Saan patungo yung relationship variable) X-axis is the independent, horizontal Y-axis is the dependent, vertical HYPOTHESES Hypothesis Based on the literature of other pople Based on personal experiences Alternative Hypothesis May relationship yung prediction Null Hypothesis No relationship yung prediction Scientists always advanced null hypothesis than alternative hypothesis There is no significant relationship between two variables One-tailed Specified a direction Flat: no effect Consider the aspect of time: curvilinear Direction: inverse or direct Two-tailed Does not specify a direction Can’t specify it negatively or positively Association Relationship of a variable  Structure of Research Hourglass – it is a method Scales can be rankes Hourglass Structure Start with very broad questions Go back to the original question toward the end Ex: you want to study parenting. o The second step is to narrow down what particular aspect you want to study. Parenting Hypothetico-Deductive Model Exhaust all possibilities styles/decisions of those who don't have children. o You can only narrow down your topic if you TYPES OF DATA & UNIT OF ANALYSIS stated the literature. What did other authors say about it? o After identifying the studies, determine how to narrow down the topic. o Then you need to operationalize them. o identifying the attributes of your variables. o After operationalizing, it is now observation. o When ethnographic, you need to be with the people. It is the employment of your operationalization. o After gathering data through observation, you analyze them. identify the common LESSON 4: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH responses and unique responses. Cross check your response and results with results RATIONALE OF RESEARCH of past studies. COMPONENTS OF A STUDY STRUCTURE OF RESEARCH THE HOURGLASS METHAPHOR FOR THE RESEARCH PROCESS Your problem can be based on literature or practical o literature - ano na sinasabi ng tao about this topic  o practical experience Bawat specific question mo, dun ka babase ng hypothesis. Questions relate to hypothesis Specific questions should help answer the general question. And the specific questions, you should be able to identify the variables to be able to aid the creation of the hypothesis Hypothesis - always put forward two possibilities Hypothetico deductive model - only accept one Force majeure - acts of God. Uncontrollable Inductive events. Specific observations to broader generalizations and theories Related to qualitative Sometimes called a “bottom-up approach” It is wrong to exclusively associate with one another Observations can be interpreted in many ways. TWO RESEARCH FALLACIES DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION Ecological Fallacy You assume what is true in general is also true in particular. General cases to specific cases Faculty reasoning that results from making conclusions about individual based only on Logic analyses of group data. Foundation of science Exception Fallacy Deductive You assume what is true in particular is also true Start with the more theoretical assumption > in general. Create hypothesis > Create questions > Specific cases to general cases Operationalize them > Data > Analyze them > Faulty conclusion The results ba, is it in agreement with existing Basing a conclusion on exceptional or unique theory or challenge existing theory? cases. o Usually connected sa quantitative VALIDITY OF RESEARCH Validity How good how bad or how weak is your conclusion One of the basis of this is dapat tama yung construct mo, kung tama operationalization mo Best available approximation of the truth of a given proposition, inference, or conclusion. Cause Construct How you think of your independent variable from a theoretical perspective. Your abstract idea or theory of what the cause is in a cause-effect relationship you are investigating. Effect Construct How you think of your dependent variable from a theoretical perspective Your abstract idea or theory of what the outcome is in a cause-effect relationship you are investigating. NOTE: Kapag mali yung program, mali yung construct and internal validity. C.I.C.E Threats to Validity Reasons your conclusion/interference might be wrong ETHICS IN RESEARCH Voluntary Participation Ensure that study participants voluntarily join and not coerced. Informed Consent LESSON 5.1: STATISTICS AND SCIENCE What are the things you will ask, what are the risks. STATISTICS Policy of informing study participants about the procedures and risks involved in research. NOTE: Iisang form na yung dalawang yan It is not mathematical (accuracy) Statistics – exactness of probability Scientific method in numerical way STATISTICS AND SCIENCE Obscure the data about them (in quali) In quanti, the people are turning to numbers, di siya problem CONCEPTUALIZING Theory Temporary explanation of a social phenomenon Can be falsified (a characteristic of science) One way to prove a theory is through statistics Empirical Phenomenon Things that can be observed or measured PROPORTIONAL THINKING  What is the relationship of the part to the whole RATE FRACTIONS PROPORTIONS PERCENTAGE RATE TO RATIO  DATA Decoding – transforming your interval ratio variable to categorical Discrete Categorical variables Nominal and Ordinal Continuous Interval ratio variables Exact Measurement Hypothesis Prediction about the relationship between 2 variables, asserting the differences among the measurement of an independent variable will correspond to differences among the measures if the dependent variable. NOTE: Independent variable can be discrete or Mutually Exhaustive / Inclusive: Exhaust all continuous possible attributed of variables. Otherwise, you Kapag discrete, walang directions put others Mutually Exclusive: hindi pwede dalawa ang VARIABLES (LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT) sagot, isa lang dapat. INCLUSIVENESS AND EXCLUSIVENESS ROUNDING ERRORS  LESSON 5.2: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY CENTRAL TENDENCY MEASURES Categorical Variables May classifications, may types Two Type o Ordinal – may value o Nominal – walang value. No mean, so yung mean of central tendency na gagamitin mo is mode (the mode often occurring number sa distribution. Rank the score from highest to lowest, then get the highest.) Once you classify them into categories, it is ordinal. MODE  No mode kasi walang mataas, pantay-pantay Multiple modes – Interval ratio – yung mode is not necessarily nasa gitna MEDIAN Advantage of Median Pag may presence ng outlier, walang epekto yung outlier sa median Outliers can skew the distribution By looking at the mean, you can see If the value of the median is higher than the value of the mean, it is skewed to the left If the value of mean is higher than the value of Since nominal has no value, there is no middle median, it is skewed to the right If the value of median and the mean are almost equal, the distribution is a bell curve, a normal distribution. No presence of the outlier Skewness - kung gaano ka normal yung curve mo Central Limit Theorem Habang lumalaki sample size mo, the possibility of the curve being normal also increases Because the characteristics of your sample becomes closer to the characteristics of your population Nababawasan mo yung effect ng outlier pag dumadami sample size mo By looking at the value of your median and mode, if the median is higher than the value of the mean, hindi normal curve mo. Pag nag ttest ka ng parametric, u have to assume na normal yung curve MEAN Answer to the last question…. No, because we have an outlier Either remove the outlier then get the mean or find the median. Because the median is not affected by the outlier MEAN, MEDIAN, & SKEW