ME LAB-1 Notes PDF

ME LAB-1 NOTES Methanol - Methanol can be used as a fuel in internal combustion engines and Liquid fuels - are fuels that are in a liquid is sometimes blended with gasolin...

ME LAB-1 NOTES Methanol - Methanol can be used as a fuel in internal combustion engines and Liquid fuels - are fuels that are in a liquid is sometimes blended with gasoline to state at ambient temperatures and are produce methanol-blended fuels, such used primarily to power engines, as M85 (85% methanol, 15% gasoline). generate heat, or provide energy. Biodiesel – Produced from vegetable Types of Liquid Fuels: oils, animal fats, or recycled 1. Petroleum-Based Fuels grease. Can be used in diesel engines, Gasoline (petrol) - Primarily used in often blended with petroleum. internal combustion engines in cars and Biobutanol - is typically produced motorcycles. through a fermentation process using Diesel - Used in diesel engines found in microorganisms that convert sugars or trucks, buses, some cars, and industrial other carbohydrates into butanol. machinery. 3. Synthetic Fuels Kerosene – Used as a fuel for jet engines Synthetic Gasoline - Created from (aviation fuel) and in some heating synthetic processes like Fischer-Tropsch applications. Also used in lamps and synthesis, used similarly to conventional stoves in some regions. gasoline. Heating Oil - Like diesel but typically Synthetic Diesel - Produced from gas- used for home heating. to-liquid (GTL) or coal-to-liquid (CTL) LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) - A processes, used similarly to mixture of propane and butane, used for conventional diesel. heating, cooking, and as an automotive 4. Renewable Fuels fuel. It is stored as a liquid under pressure. Algae Biofuel - is a type of renewable energy produced from algae. Propane: A flammable hydrocarbon gas used as a fuel for heating and cooking. Cellulosic Ethanol - is a type of biofuel made from the cellulose fibers in plant Butane: A flammable hydrocarbon gas materials, rather than from the starches used in portable stoves and lighters. or sugars typically used in ethanol 2. Biofuels/Alcohol Fuels - It is derived production. from renewable resources, making it a 5. Specialty Fuels more sustainable option compared to fossil fuels. Rocket Fuels - Includes liquid oxygen (LOX) combined with various Ethanol – A biofuel made from hydrocarbons like RP-1 (a highly refined fermenting sugarcane, corn, or other form of kerosene). biomasses. Often blended with gasoline to reduce emissions. Naphtha - is a type of hydrocarbon liquid fuel (crude oil) derived from petroleum refining. Used in petrochemical production and as a solvent; sometimes used for precise measurements of used in blending fuels. liquids. Determination of Density, Specific Viscosity – is a measure of a fluid’s Gravity, and Viscosity resistance to flow. Density - is the mass per unit volume of Viscometer - a device that measures the a substance. viscosity of a fluid. Hydrometer - measures the relative Capillary Viscometer - measures the density of liquids based on the principle time it takes for a volume of liquid to flow of buoyancy. through a thin tube. Pycnometer - a device used to Rotational Viscometer – measures determine the density of a liquid by viscosity by rotating a spindle or rotor in comparing the weight of a known volume the fluid and measuring the torque of liquid to the weight of the same required to turn it. volume of water. Falling Sphere Viscometer- measures Digital Density Meter - measures the time it takes for a sphere to fall density using oscillation tubes and is through a liquid under gravity. more precise. Brookfield Viscometer - is a type of Areometer - an areometer is a type of rotational viscometer designed for a hydrometer with a wider scale for more wide range of viscosities. precise measurements in specific Vibrating Viscometer - measure applications. viscosity by detecting changes in the Displacement Method (for Solids) - vibration frequency of a probe immersed This method involves using a liquid and in the fluid. measuring the volume displacement to Cone and Plate Viscometer - measures calculate density. viscosity by rotating a cone over a flat Ultrasonic Density Meter - measure plate and measuring the shear stress density using the speed of sound through and shear rate. a liquid. Cup Viscometer (Ford Cup, Zahn Cup) Balancing Density Measurement (for - measure the time it takes for a liquid to Liquids) – this method uses a balance to flow out of a cup with a hole at the measure the mass of a liquid sample and bottom. a volumetric container. Dynamic Shear Rheometer - A dynamic Specific Gravity – is the ratio of the shear rheometer measures the viscosity density of a liquid to the density of water of materials under oscillatory shear at a specific temperature (usually at 4 conditions. degrees Celsius). FLASH POINTS AND FIRE POINTS Specific Gravity Bottle - Like a Flash point – is the lowest temperature pycnometer, a specific gravity bottle is at which the lubricating or fuel must be heated before its vapor, when mixed with HZBS-002 Manual Type Abel Closed air, ignite but not continue to burn. Cup Flash Point Tester - is designed according to ISO13736 and IP 170 by Fire point – is the temperature at which Abel close cup method, it is suitable to lubricant or fuel combustion will be the determination of flash point of sustained. petroleum product and other flammable Jet fuel-Jet fuel, a refined petroleum liquid with flash point between -30℃ and product used in aircraft engines. 70℃. Acetone- a colorless, volatile liquid is Anton Paar’s Abel closed-cup flash classified in various ways depending on point tester series - Perform automatic, its properties and uses. high-precision flash point testing of samples like jet fuels, solvents, flavors Benzene- is a cyclic hydrocarbon with and fragrances, and chemicals. the chemical formula C₆H₆. It is classified in several ways based on its CARBON RESIDUE structure and properties Carbon residue - indicates the tendency Xylene - is a colorless liquid that is of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid classified in various ways based on its residue on a hot surface, such as a structure and properties burner or injection nozzle, when its vaporizable constituents evaporate. Mineral spirits - are a petroleum- derived solvent that is commonly used in Conradson carbon residue, commonly various applications. It's also known as known as "Concarbon" or "CCR" - is a white spirits or petroleum spirits. laboratory test used to provide an indication of the coke-forming Lubricating oil is a vital component in tendencies of an oil. many mechanical systems, reducing friction, wear, and heat generation Ramsbottom carbon residue (RCR) is between moving parts. It's classified well known in the petroleum industry as based on its base oil type, viscosity, and a method to calculate the carbon additives. residue of a fuel. Is suitable to determine the carbon residue of lubricating oils, Turpentine - is a colorless, volatile liquid heavy liquid fuels and other petroleum derived from the resin of pine trees. It's a products. complex mixture of hydrocarbons, primarily monoterpenes. Micro carbon residue, commonly known as "MCR" is a laboratory test Apparatus to measure flash and fire used to determine the amount of points of Liquid fuels & Grease: carbonaceous residue formed after Cleveland open cup flash point tester evaporation and pyrolysis of petroleum (manual)- The instrument is fitted with materials under certain conditions. electric heater, power adjustable by Drop And Hardness Tests of Greases regulator on the front panel. Grease testing - is a crucial aspect of ensuring the proper functionality and longevity of various machinery and enhanced load-carrying capacity and is equipment. used in heavy-duty applications Grease - a thick lubricant composed of a Bentone grease - Is a clay-based base oil and a thickener, plays a vital role lubricant developed with the help of in reducing friction, preventing wear, and bentonite clay. protecting moving parts from damage. Barium Complex Grease - Excellent Base Oil: The main component of water resistance, high load-carrying grease, which provides the primary capacity, and good stability in high lubricating properties. temperatures. Thickener: This component gives grease Sodium Grease - Formulated by mixing its structure and consistency. soda soap with additives and base oils. Such mixture provides solid shear Additives: These are used to enhance stability, high dropping point, excellent the properties of the grease. rust protection, and good lubrication. Lithium Grease- Versatile and Extreme Pressure (EP) Grease - Is commonly used in automotive and designed to lubricate machine industrial applications. components in environments where Calcium Grease - Offers excellent heavy shock loading and high pressures resistance to water and extreme are prevalent. temperatures, often used in marine Food-Grade Grease - Food-grade or environments. food-safe lubricant is the name given to Aluminum Complex Grease - Offers any industrial lubricant that is high-temperature stability and water considered safe for incidental contact resistance, used in automotive and with items that may be consumed by industrial applications. humans or animals, as long as it does not exceed a certain concentration Polyurea Grease - Known for its high- temperature stability and long service Low-Temperature Grease - Are life, often used in high-speed bearings. designed for cold environments and can provide reliable lubrication even in Silicone Grease - Provides excellent freezing temperatures. high-temperature stability and is often used in applications requiring a non- High-Temperature Grease - Specialized reactive, non-stick lubricant. lubricants designed to withstand elevated temperatures in demanding Graphite Grease - Contains graphite for industrial applications. dry lubrication and is used in extreme pressure and high-temperature Water-Resistant Grease - Excellent environments. resistance to washout and corrosion from water exposure. Molybdenum Disulfide Grease- Contains molybdenum disulfide for Conductive Grease - Typically serves as a ground. Drop point of grease, also known as estimated to contribute 75% of the mass the melting point - is a critical of the universe. parameter that indicates the Syngas (CO + H₂) - is gas from non-fossil temperature at which the grease begins sources, produced through pyro- to liquefy. gasification. pyro-gasification. Pyro- CALORIFIC TEST OF GASEOUS FUEL gasification is a thermochemical transformation process which consists Calorific value - is the amount of heat in heating carbon-rich matter to obtain a energy present in food or fuel and which synthesis gas. is determined by the complete combustion of specified quantity at Coal Gas - Produced by heating coal in constant pressure and in normal the absence of air. Coal gas is a mixture conditions. of methane (CH4), hydrogen (H2) and carbon monoxide (CO), formed by the CATEGORIES OF GASEOUS FUELS destructive distillation of coal. gaseous fuels - They are fuels found in Water Gas - is a kind of fuel gas, a nature or manufactured in gaseous mixture of carbon monoxide and state. hydrogen. It is produced by "alternately Natural Gas: Fuels derived from natural hot blowing a fuel layer [coke] with air gas reservoirs in the Earth's crust. and gasifying it with steam". Manufactured Gas: Fuels produced Producer Gas - is the product obtained through chemical processes, often from when coal or coke is burnt with air coal or biomass. deficiency and with a controlled amount of moisture. Biogas: Fuels produced from the decomposition of organic matter in Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) - Is a anaerobic conditions. fuel gas which contains a flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases, TYPES OF NATURAL GAS specifically propane, n-butane and 1. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG): Natural isobutane. gas that has been cooled to a very low Coke Oven Gas - A byproduct of steel temperature to convert it into a liquid production, primarily composed of state. hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, 2. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG): and other hydrocarbons. Natural gas that has been compressed to Blast Furnace Gas - A byproduct of iron a high pressure for storage and production, primarily composed of transportation. carbon monoxide and nitrogen. Manufactured Gas Reformed Natural Gas - is a type of Hydrogen (H₂) - is a clean alternative to natural gas that has been processed to methane, also known as natural gas. It's increase its hydrogen content. the most abundant chemical element, Biogas - is a gaseous fuel produced from Bomb Calorimeter - A classic method the decomposition of organic matter in involving burning a known amount of fuel an anaerobic environment. in a sealed chamber and measuring the temperature rise of a surrounding water Types of Biogases: bath. 1.Renewable Biogas - Produced from Continuous Flow Calorimeter - A more biodegradable organic materials that are modern method that measures the heat continuously replenished such as released by a continuous flow of fuel. Is agricultural waste, sewage sludge, a type of calorimeter specifically landfill gas, biogas from wastewater designed for measuring the calorific treatment and human waste value of gaseous fuels in a continuous 2. Fossil Biogas - Produced from fossil flow. fuels such as coal and oil through a Gas Chromatography - It is an analytical process of pyrolysis. It is not considered technique used to separate the chemical a renewable resource as it depletes finite components of a sample mixture and reserves. then detect them to determine their 3. Regasified Liquefied Natural Gas presence or absence. (RLNG): Liquefied natural gas converted Infrared Analyzer - Measures the back to a gaseous state. infrared radiation emitted by a burning 4. Hydrogen Sulfide (H₂S): A byproduct fuel to determine its calorific value. of natural gas production that can be Oxygen Bomb Calorimeter - Similar to a used as a fuel. bomb calorimeter but uses oxygen 5. Carbon Monoxide (CO): A byproduct instead of air to ensure complete of incomplete combustion that can be combustion. used as a fuel. Adiabatic Calorimeter - Is a type of 6. Ethylene (C₂H₄): A byproduct of calorimeter designed to minimize heat petroleum refining that can be used as a loss to the surroundings during the fuel. calorimetric measurement. 7. Propylene (C₃H₆): A byproduct of Modern Machines for Calorific Testing petroleum refining that can be used as a of Gaseous Fuel fuel. Laser-Induced Breakdown 8. Butylene (C₄H₈): A byproduct of Spectroscopy (LIBS) - can determine petroleum refining that can be used as a the elemental composition of a gas and fuel. estimate its calorific value based on the presence of specific elements 9. Gasoline Vapor: Can be used as a fuel in some engines. Portable Gas Calorimeter - A compact and portable device for on-site testing of Apparatus used for Calorific Testing of gas calorific value Gaseous Fuels: Fourier Transform Infrared Pellet fuels (or pellets) - are a type of Spectroscopy (FTIR) - can analyze the solid fuel made from compressed chemical composition of a gas and organic material. calculate its calorific value based on the concentration of combustible Wood - is a structural tissue found in the components. stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. Automated Calorimeters - This device is designed to measure the heat released Briquettes - are a type of biomass fuel or absorbed during chemical reactions, made of compressed recycled wood physical changes, or combustion waste, suitable for burning in most processes. appliances. TEST OF SOLID FUELS Charcoal - is a solid biomass fuel obtained through the carbonization (also Solid fuel - refers to various forms of called pyrolysis) of wood. solid material that can be burnt to release energy, providing heat and light Biochar - It's made from the burning of through the process of combustion. biomass—from sources such as forestry and agricultural wastes. Types of solid fuels: Hexamine fuel tablet - is a form of solid Fossil fuel - is a generic term for non- fuel in tablet form. renewable energy sources such as coal, coal products, natural gas, derived gas, Petroleum coke - is a final carbon-rich crude oil, petroleum products and non- solid material that derives from oil renewable wastes. refining, and is one type of the group of fuels referred to as cokes. Biofuels - are fuels derived from biomass, i.e., organic material from GEOLOGICAL FUELS plants, algae, or animal waste. Methane hydrates - are white, icelike Solid biofuels - are organic materials solids that consist of methane and derived from living organisms that can water. be burned to produce energy. oil shale - Oil shale is the rock from Coal - is a sedimentary deposit which shale oil is extracted. composed predominantly of carbon that TAR SANDS - are a mixture of mostly is readily combustible. sand, clay, water, and a thick, molasses- Coke - a grey, hard, and porous fuel with like substance called bitumen. high carbon content and few impurities. INDUSTRIAL WASTE Peat fuel - is an accumulation of Coal tar - is derived from coal. It is a partially decayed vegetation or organic byproduct of the production of coke, a matter that can be burnt once solid fuel that contains mostly carbon, sufficiently dried. and coal gas. Rocket propellants - are the substances Ignition Furnaces - A combustion that provide the thrust and energy for furnace uses an ignition system to light rockets to launch and travel through the burners that produce the furnace's space. heat. SOLID FUEL TESTERS Flue gas analysis Elemental analyzer - is an instrument Flue gases - also known as exhaust that can determine the elemental gases, are the products of combustion composition of a sample. The analyzer processes. may simply determine which elements Flue gas analysis - is the process of are present, or it may make a quantitative analysis to identify how measuring the composition of gases much of each element is present. emitted from combustion processes. Flue Gas Sampling Bomb calorimeter - An apparatus primarily used for measuring heats of Flue gas sampling - is a critical process combustion. for monitoring the composition of gases emitted from combustion processes. Particle analyzers - are used to determine the size and distribution of Isokinetic Sampling - This method particles making up a material. ensures that the gas velocity in the sampling probe matches the gas velocity Moisture analyzers - sometimes called in the flue duct, preventing preferential “moisture balances”, are used to sampling of certain components. measure the moisture content in various types of samples including solids, Grab Sampling - This method involves liquids, and gases. collecting a single sample of flue gas at a specific point in time. Sulfur analyzers - are used to measure sulfur content in crude oil, natural gas, Continuous Sampling - This method and refined products, such as diesel and involves continuously collecting and gasoline. analyzing flue gas samples over time, providing real-time data on gas pH meter - is an instrument used to composition. measure acidity or alkalinity of a solution - also known as ph. Chemical Methods - are commonly used to analyze the composition of flue Conductivity meter - allows us to gases, especially for measuring the measure the level of conductivity in concentrations of specific components. solutions. Chemical Methods Smoke Density Monitor - is used to monitor the smoke emission from all Orsats - named after their inventor, Sir kinds of combustion and the soot Clement J. Orsat , are a type of gas contamination of inert gas. analyzer commonly used for determining the composition of flue gases. Fyrite testers - are a popular and portable tool used for measuring the carbon dioxide (CO2) content in flue gases. Instrumental Methods Gas Chromatography (GC) - Separates components based on their affinity for a stationary phase. Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) - Measures the absorption of infrared radiation by different gases. Chemiluminescence Detectors (CLD) - Detects specific gases based on the light emitted during a chemical reaction. Paramagnetic Oxygen Analyzers - Measures oxygen concentration based on its magnetic properties. Electrochemical Sensors - Measures the electrical current generated by a chemical reaction between the gas and a sensor. Mass Spectrometry (MS) - Separates and identifies compounds based on their mass-to-charge ratio. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) - Uses Fourier transform techniques to analyze infrared spectra.