Linguistics Theories and Approaches PDF

........................................ CHAPTER......II:. Overview...... on..the.....Micro-linguistics....... is.also. called... as........................theoretical.... linguistics.... or..general...linguistics........Study... of..Linguistics:.......Theories,...........................Branches,.....

........................................ CHAPTER......II:. Overview...... on..the.....Micro-linguistics....... is.also. called... as........................theoretical.... linguistics.... or..general...linguistics........Study... of..Linguistics:.......Theories,...........................Branches,......and.. Approaches............................................... It. is.the. linguistic.... branch... that.. studies... the....Human... language.... is. said.. to. be..the. greatest.....................all.. nature of language – what is language....................... about... and..how..it works.......... of. all. human....inventions......But..there.. are..so.....................many.. languages..... in. the..world...and. some... of..It.focuses... on. the..structural.... components..... of... them... have.. been...used.. on. a. much...wider.... language.... under...broad.. level.. of. grammar,...............scale.............which.. is. divided... into.. few.. structures.... or.......................................... This.. has.. become....one. of. the.. reasons....why...level..of.phonetics,.... morphology,..... and.. syntax........ people many... want...to.learn.. or. acquire.... them............................................................. BRANCHES....... OF.. LINGUISTICS................................. is Linguistics. the.. scientific.... study... of. human....................................................................language................................. It. is. a.science... that.. studies... the.. rules,............................................................. systems, and principles of human language.............................................................................. Linguistics..... is.also..concerned.....with..human........................ life,.. behavior,.... society,.... and..so. forth....................................................................................... PHONOLOGY..............It.is.divided... into.. two.. broad...fields,...namely:........................ MICRO....LINGUISTICS......and..MACRO-............................... LINGUISTICS................ .It.studies... the..system... of. sounds............................ within... a.language....or. between............................... different.... languages...................................................................... Phonology.....is.primarily.... concerned.................................................................. with.. the.. systemic.... organization......of......................... sounds....especially.... in. spoken................................. languages......................................... ..................................................................... It. studies....the. patterns.... of. sounds....................... in a language, how...................speech sounds............................. are................................ organized,.....and..how..they.. are. used............................. to. convey....meaning............................................................................................................................ Phonology.....focuses...on. the..abstract.......It.also..describes.... and..sets..the. rules...or... properties..... of. sounds,... such.. as. how.. sounds.....principles.... that.. govern... the.. order...of.words.... are..acquired... or. stores... in. the..human...mind... .......................................... and.. structures..... of. sentences................................................. Phonetics.....is.a branch.... of. linguistics......................... SEMANTICS . that.. studies....the..physical....properties.....of......................sounds... –. how.. sounds.... are..produced....... This.. is. one..of.the. major... branches.... of....................... linguistics.....and. it. deals...with.. the..study.. of..... and.. articulated......through....the......the. linguistic.....meaning....of.words...and..... interaction......of. the..different.... vocal...............................organs.... ................sentence.................................................. International Phonetic Alphabet aims. It. encompasses...... morphological...... meaning..........................to.provide....a unique.... but..generalized.......and. the.. combined.....meaning....of.syntactical...... symbol.... for..every...sound...or. phoneme...............................in. a.language................. structures.......................................................................  It. studies....language....meaning....in. terms...of..... MORPHOLOGY........... .....words-sentence.......relationships......whether....in...This..focuses... on. the..study.. of. morphemes........ the.. lexical... or. compositional.......level............................................. –.the. smallest....meaningful.....unit. of. a........................language....that. cannot... be..further...divided..........PRAGMATICS................................... Pragmatics..... is. also.. one.. of. the..main......  It. also.. studies... different.... morphological.......................... branches of linguistics that focuses on... structures.... of. words,... describes.... how......................... words... are..formed,... and..demonstrates......... the.. study...of. language.... meaning..... .......how..word.. formation.... processes.............................(derivation.... and.. inflection).... affect... the.... The.. main...difference.... is. that.. semantics..........................studies... the..conceptual.....meaning....of.words....... meaning.... of. words... and..their........................ pronunciation..................... and..sentences,.... while... pragmatics..... studies.......... SYNTAX................................ their contextual meaning........................................ It. focuses... on. the.. arrangement..... of. words... and... It. deals... with.. the..meaning....beyond... the... phrases to form sentences.................... It deals with.surface... or. literal... level... It. focuses.... more.. on......how..sentences.... are. structured.................................................the. intended.... meaning.... of. the.. speaker....... It. came.. from.. the.. Greek...word.. “syntaxis”,...... rather... than.. what...the. sentence.....literally........ which... means... arrangement..................means........................................................................................  It studies how words, phrases, and.................... Therefore,.....it.analyses... implied.... meanings....... clauses... are..arranged... or. ordered.... to. form................... they or what people actually mean when..................... . sentence and relationship between them...... make...use. of. language.................................................................................................................................................SOCIOLINGUISTICS....................................It.deals.. with...the. study... of. the.. effects... of......................the. different.....social.. and.. cultural.... factors..............................................................on. the..use..of.language..... It. examines..... the...................... patterns.....and..variations.... in..language.......................... within... a. society....or. community..........................................................................................................It.analyzes....how.. people,....or.a.certain........................group...of.people,... make... choices....in. terms....................... of. language.....style.. or. the.. way.. they.. use....... Macro-linguistics.................................... views... language.....from.. a. broader.......language.... to. express.... their.. personal.....and........................... social... identity...........perspective...... It. is. concerned......with.. how.. a......................... is. acquired language.... or. used... and..how.. it.... PSYCHOLINGUISTICS............. ...... relates... to..society... as. a. whole.........It focuses.... on. the.. interrelation......between........................ linguistics.....and..psychological......factors... that...................... enable... humans.... to. understand,...... acquire,.......It.focuses... on..the. application...... of........................ language.....in.daily.. life... Under... this..........and..use. language............ branch.... of. linguistics..... are..the. famous..............................................It.is.primarily.... concerned.....with.. the......fields.. of..psycholinguistics........ and..... processes.....related... to. word...cognition.... and........ sociolinguistics..................................................... learning.... in. particular.....and..language........................ acquisition in general.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................COMPUTATIONAL.........LINGUISTICS...... ..................... BIO-LINGUISTICS .................... This.. is. studies... the..application.... of. computer....... science... in. the..analysis... of. language.... and..... This...is an..interdisciplinary....... study........speech...and. other...linguistic....studies........ involving.... other... disciplines.....such.. as........................biology,... linguistics,..... psychology,......and........................ neurolinguistics,....... primarily.....aims.. to...... It. is.primarily....concerned.... with.. how........................................ can computational modeling and approaches... explain....the. evolution.....and. formation..... of... be. used.. to. help.. describe.... linguistics.... process........... language............... and.. analyze... research.... data.. related... to..........................linguistic....issues.. and.. problems........... APPLIED..... LINGUISTICS....... ............................................................... It. is. primarily.... concerned..... with.. the....... HISTORICAL.......LINGUISTICS.......... application..... of. language.....studies... in. real.... This.. is. also..known...as.diachronic.... linguistics........ life,.. such.. as. language.... teaching.... and.....It.deals.. with.. the. study... of. language....change... or........ learning..... ......... change... in. a. group...of.languages.... over.. time,....................... including.... phonological,...... grammatical,......and... It. is. a.broad.. term...referring....to. the. range.......... semantic.... changes........... of. activities.... that.. involve.... the..solving... of...................... some... language-related........problems.... and.... .It is. concerned.....with.. tracing... the. history....of........ concerns..................................................... language.... family...and. identifying..... how.. a......................particular.... language....develops....into. its..present...... CLINICAL..... LINGUISTICS.............................. form.... It. is. a.sub-discipline...... of. applied............................ linguistics.....that..focuses... on. the....... COMPARATIVE........ LINGUISTICS....... ......................................... application..... of. linguistics..... concepts.... and... It is also called comparative-historical theories in the field of Speech Language....................................... linguistics,.... since...it.is a. sub..field..of.historical........... Pathology..............................with linguistics that is primarily concerned...It.involves....the. description,......analysis,....and.... comparing.... languages.....to.establish....their.... treatment..... of. language.... disabilities..... and.....similarities.... and.. differences..... especially.... in....................... identifying..... whether....or.not. they.. have........... disorders................. common....ancestral....language............................................... DEVELOPMENTAL..........LINGUISTICS............................ It. is. a.subfield... of. linguistics..... that.. studies...... STRUCTURAL........LINGUISTICS............................. It. is. a.linguistics.... branch... that..focuses... on. the...the. development...... of. the.. linguistics.....ability..... study... of. language....as.an. independent.........of.an. individual.....especially.... children........ network... of. formal... systems.... and..structures..... ... It. focuses....on. how.. children.... acquire......................... language.... childhood,.....such.. as. acquisition....... It. is. based...on. theories... and.. principles.... that.......................................... of. syntax... and.. other.. linguistic.....elements........language... is. composed.....of.structural.... units...................... such as lexical and syntactic................... elements.........................................................................................................................................LINGUISTIC.......TYPOLOGY.......... LINGUISTICS........ THEORIES...... AND..... It. is.another... field.. of. linguistics.... which... aims...................... MODELS.. to. classify... languages.....based.. on. their......................... structural.....and. functional.....components............. BEHAVIORISM......... ...... .It focuses....on. describing.... the.. diversity....of...................... the.. languages.... in. the..world.. especially.... in....................... terms...of.their.. properties.... and.. structures...................BF. Skinner..................................................................................... NEUROLINGUISTICS....................................It.is a. branch... of. linguistics.....that. studies....the...................... relationship......between... language.... and..the........................structures.... and..functions....of.the. brain...........................Its. aim..is to. analyze....the. different.... brain..... is. a. notable... behaviorist,..... who.. believes....that........................ for. the.. language....learning... to. occur,......functions....and. mechanisms......that..are. related..... imitation,.....drills.. and..constant... practice.... are.. to the language comprehension,..........................very..important...............production,.... and.. acquisition................................................. Language.... teachers... must...be.proficient....enough........ STYLISTICS............... or. possess... native-like.... fluency... so. that.. what.. will... It.is.a branch... of. linguistics.....that..deals.. with.... be..taught.. to. the..learners... are. only.. the. perfect..... the..study.. on. how.. different.... individuals.....or...........ones............ social...groups...use. language.... in. all. types...or.......................................... This.. is.most.. applicable.... in.teaching... correct.......forms,...spoken...or.written... in. their.......pronunciation...... Teachers.... have.. a.great..role. in.. communication................... .. the. early...formation....of the.. speech...development........................................... of the learners... It. is. also..called.. as. literary....linguistics..........................because... it.studies... the. different.... authors....and......................writers...especially.... on. their.. writing....styles.. as...  This.. principle.... of.learning... as. a.habit..formation..... they.. use.. a.variety...of.literary... techniques......................... has its own weaknesses. and.. devices... to. provide....distinctness.....and........................................... NATIVISM/INNATISM.................. variety... in. their.. writing... especially,.....but. not...................... exclusively, in different..................literary works and........... .Noam.. Chomsky,..............genres.......................................................................... ETYMOLOGY........................................................................ It. investigates..... the..origins...of.words,...their.... the..main..proponent... of. nativism,....criticized... the.... birth,.. and.. development,...... often.. delineating........ imitation....and. stimulus... response....learning...................to.another their spread from one language.....principles... of. behaviorism.....for. its. failure.. to. explain..... and.. their.. evolving.... changes... in. form...and....why,. with.. limited... knowledge....of.grammatical.... rules,...........meaning............ people.. are..able. to. generate... a. limitless... number... of.............................sentences............................................................................................................... INTERACTIONISM................ Chomsky.....hypothesized......that..humans...........................be. born must.. with.. Language.....Acquisition.............................(LAD) Device.. in. their...brain.. which... is. the.............. Lev.. Vygotsky.............................................. reason... why.. children.... can..acquire......................... language quickly................... ............................................................ He..argues...that..LAD..contains....the......................... universal.... rules...by. which... human.............................................. assert...that. language.... acquisition..... has..both... languages..... operate.....This.. is.called...as.....biological....and. social... components..... –.it.is the... Universal.....Grammar.... (UG).. or. mental........ result...of.the. application.....of.the. principles............grammar................ propounded..... by. the..behaviorists..... and.............................. nativists................................................... .Universal.... Grammar.... is. a. set..of.rules......interactionists The...... believe... that.. there.. must...be. a. good.. interplay.... between.... the..biological....and.. which allows us to ‘feel’ unconsciously....................... or. not whether..our. utterance..... or. sentence....... environmental...... factors... for.. language............is.well-formed........................................................ acquisition.....to.occur... ............................................  Under this principle, children try to.Humans... in. general... or..children... in. particular.........................have.. a.grasp.. of. the.. target... language.... by......inclination have.... to. acquire....a language,.... they...... hypothesizing.......and. making.......... never may...reach.. their.. full.. language....potential......... generalizations........ .........without... the..support... from.. their...social....................................................................environment............. Example:.... The.. past.. tense... forms...of.regular.......................................but.. verbs are usually added with –ed,...INTERACTIONISM........ Vygotsky’s.....social........ tend children.. to. generalize..... the..rules.. and.... interaction..... theory,... states...that. children’s.......say. “hurted”,.... but.. this.. would... be. later.. be.... language.... development..... is. a. by-product..... of.......................children’s.... social.. interactions......with..the... corrected by them to accommodate...................................... important.....people...in.theirs.. lives,...specifically....... exceptions..... to. their.. hypothesis............................... their...parents... and..immediate.... more......UG. is. applicable..... to. children.... during... the......knowledgeable...... others... (MKO’s).........critical... period... in. early.. childhood..... when.............................................. can Children..only..do.so. much.. with...their..own...they.. acquire... their...native...language....but...................... ability (zone of actual development), but with.. is.not this. applicable..... in. acquiring.... another........................... language.... (second....language)......... social... environment......surrounding..... them,.. help........................ support and... from...their.. MKO’s,... they.. can..soar......................to.greater... heights... and..achieve... great.. things..........................(zone.. of. proximal.... development)................................................................................................................................ MONITOR.......MODEL..........  Language..... learning.... is. a. conscious............................................ process and usually happens within a............................................... Stephen.... Krashen.......formal... environment...... such...as. in. school......................... It. can.. be. said...that..language.... learning.......................... results....from.. formal... instruction,..................................................................requiring.... a. conscious..... effort...to. achieve.........................knowledge..... and.. competence......in. the............................target...language..... ........ believes.... that..the. social...and. biological............................components..... contribute.... to. language.......................... acquisition...... This.. is. also..known...as.the. Input.... According..... to. Krashen,.....acquisition..... in......... Hypothesis............... more... important.....than.. learning..... ..................................................................................ACQUISITION-LEARNING................. Learning.....only..serves... as. a. monitor.... or......................editor... while...acquisition..... is. responsible...... HYPOTHESIS .................... for.. the..fluent...production..... of. sounds.............................................Krashen... emphasizes......that..acquisition............ and.. utterances................and. learning.... are.. different..... .............................................NATURAL.... ORDER.... HYPOTHESIS...... .......................Krashen... claimed.... that.. there...is.a natural...... He. cited... the. experience..... of..children........ or. predictable..... order... by. which... all... when they ‘acquire’ their................... first.. learners....acquire... language......This..order.... language......They.. do. not.. go. to. school... but....................... just.. naturally.... and.. gradually.... acquire....the... has.. nothing....to. do. with.. the.. simplicity.....or.... language......The. process.... is. very....... complexity..... of. grammatical...... features.......................... rather... this..order.. is. similar....to.the. way.....subconscious,...... without... them... minding.......children... acquire.... their.. first.. language.... or... on. the.. form.. of..their.. utterances.....and..the..................... adult learn a foreign language... like... They...interact... with.. the.. people.......................... around....them,.. starting.... with.. paying............................................. An. example... of. this..is that.. the. –ing.. form.. of. the.... close.. attention.....to. utterances.....of.the..... verb.. for. present... continuous.... is.acquired... early,... people around them and from................... other................. –s.. certainly much earlier than acquiring the. meaningful..... inputs... from... a.context-rich........ inflection... of. a. singular... present...form..of verbs....... environment....... Then,...they.. started... to........................ speak... and..communicate...... using...the.....Krashen....pointed... ot. that.. attempting..... to....................... teach... or. inculcate.... this.. grammatical......... language..... This.. is. called... as. language............................................ acquisition... form,... which...the. learners.... are..not. yet......................... ready...to.acquire,... has.. become....the.........................source...of.much.. frustration..... among............................. teachers.... and.. students.......................................................................................MONITOR......HYPOTHESIS.................................................... AFFECTIVE-FILTER................. Krashen....argues.. that.. while.. our..acquired.......... HYPOTHESIS............... competence..... is. responsible.... for..our. language......................... production.....such..as.our. utterance,.... the..result....This..is like.. a.screen.. or. an. opening....that. either..... of. learning... (learned....competence).....functions... as... facilitates....or.blocks.. meaningful..... inputs.. from.......................................... reaching the language acquisition part of the.. a.monitor,... editing... or. self-correcting......our............................ language....output..................brain... ..................................................Learned... competence.....could.. help..us.in.... Affective... Variables.... include... the. anxiety,....self-.... correcting.... our.. written... work.. and..also. allows......confidence,.... motivation,..... and. stress... play...... us. to. be. more.. proficient.... in. doing...verbal...... crucial... roles.. in. taking...in.the. inputs............. communication..................................................... .When.. the. filter.. is. high,.. which... means...self-.....Krashen... also..warned...that..the. monitor... can....confidence.... is. low,..the. lower.. is. the..chance.. for.....sometimes.... act. as. a. barriers... as. it.forces.. the....... the..inputs.. to. be. taken...in......... language... learner... to. slow.. down...and. focus........................................... Teachers... should... design...a language.... teaching-..... more on accuracy over fluency, affecting. confidence.....and. contributing..... or. resulting.... to... learning... process... that.. would.. lower... down.. the......... learner’s.... anxiety............................ affective filter of the learners. ..........................................INPUT... HYPOTHESIS...................................................Increasing.... the. motivation.....and. confidence.....of... Krashen....explains... that..language... skills.. cannot..... the. students....could.. lead..to.better.. acquisition........be.taught.. directly,....because... they..should...be.................occur. of meaningful language inputs can...... acquired....through... an. emergent.... process,........................... naturally....occurring....on.their..own................................................................ The.. only..way. to. acquire... a. language....is simply........................ to. receive... abundant....meaningful.... ‘inputs’... from....................... a.context-rich.....environment...... This..means.. that............................................................ for the students to continue to progress with....................................... their.. language.... development,..... they.. should... be...................... exposed... to. comprehensible.......inputs.. or. to. little.......................... beyond... their.. language... ability................................................................... According.... to. Krashen,....having.. ‘intakes’....or.......................inputs.. from.. a. context-rich.....environment..... is...................... already... enough... to. acquire... a.language.... Hence,........................ the..best. thing...to.do.for. formal...instruction.... to.......................be.able. to. contribute.... to. students’.... language......................... development..... is. to. provide... students....with..this............................ kind..of.inputs.....................................................................................