Parts of Speech - Written Expression (2020-2021) PDF

University of M'sila - Faculty of Letters and Language Department of English Language and Literature First Year LMD Students – G 1, 2 Written Expression (2020-2021) Lecturer: Miss.Benia Part One : Less...

University of M'sila - Faculty of Letters and Language Department of English Language and Literature First Year LMD Students – G 1, 2 Written Expression (2020-2021) Lecturer: Miss.Benia Part One : Lesson One : Parts of Speech Categorizing words as parts of speech is based on two principles. First, a word does not become a part of speech until it is written or spoken in a sentence. Once a word is used in a sentence, this first principle is important because a word can function as more than one part of speech, depending where it is located and how it is used in the sentence. For example, the word reading can be used as different parts of speech: Reading is an enjoyable pastime. (Noun) She has been reading since she was three. (Verb) The reading assignment took me two hours. (Adjective) The second principle identifies words as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections--the traditional classes--on the basis of similar characteristics. The characteristic of a word is important because it is not just one but several of these characteristics that identify a word as a specific part of speech. Verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs are sometimes called vocabulary words because they make up more than ninety-nine per-cent of all words listed in the dictionary.Prepositions and conjunctions ,often named, function words, connect and relate vocabulary words and pronouns. 1.Nouns Once a word is used in a sentence, it becomes a part of speech. As with other parts of speech, words are classified as nouns if they share similar characteristics. Words are classified as nouns based on four similar characteristics. The first characteristic of many nouns is that they may be words that name a person, animal, place, substance, thing, quality or idea.. My brother will graduate from college next month. Our car I was stolen in Los Angeles. Honesty is important in a relationship. Another characteristic of nouns is that they can have a plural form. A word with an -s or -es plural ending may be a noun. Boys, cats, roses, cities, gases, boxes, and months are examples of plural nouns. However, some nouns become plurals by changing their spelling. For example, man becomes 1 men, child becomes children, and mouse becomes mice. Then there are some nouns, such as " sheep or deer" that do not change for both their singular and plural form. The next characteristic of nouns is that they are often easily identified because determiners or noun indicators signal them in a sentence. The words "a, an, and the" are determiners or noun indicators often placed before a noun in a sentence. But, determiners or noun indicators do not always come just before a noun; they may be separated from a noun by other words. The best friend is the one who is an honest, loyal person. The boys had eaten all the food in the kitchen. A new car is used in an old fifties' setting to suggest the manufacturer's old-fashioned quality. The final similar characteristic is that many nouns have the same word endings or suffixes. § "One who" ( or, er, ard,yer,an,ant,ent,ate,eer,ier,ist..). E.g. actor, baker, laggard, lawyer, artisan, contestant, dependent, graduate, engineer, cashier, typist. § "One who is" ( ee,ite,ive).E.g. devotee, contrite, fugitive § "State, condition, quality, act" ( hood, dom, ness, ship ,tude, age, ance,ancy, cy,ence, ency, ion, ism, ity, ment, mony, y, ure..) E.g. Motherhood, freedom, happiness, friendship, attitude, bondage, allowance, abundancy, diplomacy, influence, impotency, invasion, criticism, variety, establishment, matrimony, beauty,venture ) § "Action or process" ( ation, tion ).E.g. creation, investigation 1.1.Types of Nouns 1.1.1. Concrete or Common Nouns A concrete or common noun is the name given to a physical thing- something that can be seen or touched.It refers to no particular person, animal, place, or thing, but to any at all. E.g. book – hair- jewel- sailor- letter- zoo- key- day- event- needle- language-magazine … § Common nouns are not capitalized. 1.1.2.Proper Nouns A proper noun is the name of a person,a place,or a particular thing or institution. It is always capitalized. E.g. Richard ( People) – Prince Edward –Mr.Bell ( Titles) –London –Mount Everest ( Places) – The British Broadcasting Corporation –Buckingham Palace ( Building and institution). 1.1.3.Abstract Nouns An abstract noun is a vague word. It expresses things that can't be observed by the senses. It refers to a quality, an idea, a state of mind, an occasion, a feeling, or a time. 2 E.g. jealousy – anger- patience- peace-excellence-beauty-sympathy- promise-luck-fear- courage-time- creativity- justice- freedom… 1.1.4.Collective Nouns Collective nouns are nouns that refer to a group of objects or people. Although they represent a number of things, they are singular words as they can be made plural. E.g. class / classes – collection / collections – crowd / crowds – team /teams – herd / herds. 1.1.5.Compound Nouns A compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. It is usually made up of two nouns, or an adjective and a noun. E.g. blackboard - aftermath- jellyfish- eyelid- floodlight- overcoat- crossroad-headache-newspaper- airport-birthday… 1.1.6. Countable / Uncountable Nouns Nouns that can be counted are called countable nouns. They can be singular or plural in forms. E.g. an exam- a house - my car – knife… / exams- houses – cars- knives… Uncountable or non-countable nouns cannot be counted. They are called mass nouns. They are used with singular verbs. Non-countable nouns are often names of liquids or gases. E.g water, air, oil, oxygen. They often refer to a whole or a mass made up of small particles or items. E.g.sugar – expensive clothing –salt- money –white sand… They are often weather phenomena,fields of study,raw materials,abstractions,or sports and pastimes. E.g.rain,economics,gold,respect,soccer,cards The following non-countable nouns are often mistakenly used as plural countable nouns Incorrect: furnitures – advices- homeworks-equipments-informations Correct :furniture –advice- homework-equipment-information 2.Pronouns A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun. The pronoun, like the noun, is used in the common sentence patterns as subject, object of a verb, indirect object, object of a verbal, object of a preposition, subjective complement, and so forth. Pronouns may be classified as personal, intensive, reflexive, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, indefinite, and reciprocal. 2.1.Kinds of Pronouns. 2.1.1. Personal pronouns show person; that is, they, indicate whether the pronoun stands for the person speaking, the first person; the person spoken to, the second person; or the person spoken of, the third person. Personal pronouns also have number and case. 3 2.1.2. Intensive and reflexive pronouns have the same forms. They are formed by adding -self or - selves (plural form) to certain personal pronouns. SINGULAR: myself – yourself- himself- herself itself PLURAL: ourselves – themselves - ourselves The intensive pronoun usually comes after the word it stands for and emphasizes that word. ! E.g. The president himself met the reporters. ! I myself gave him the directions. ! I wrote to the principal himself. The reflexive pronoun points the action back toward the subject. It may function as a subjective complement, direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition, object of a gerund, and so forth. OBJECT OF PREPOSITION: She bought the dress for herself. INDIRECT OBJECT: She bought herself a new dress. SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT: The coach was not himself. DIRECT OBJECT: Do you consider yourself his friend? 2.1.3. Demonstrative pronouns are used only in the third person, to point out particular persons, places, or things. SINGULAR: this, that , PLURAL: these, those E.g. This is my party. These are her pencils. That is Jim's shirt. Those are good apples. When these pronouns modify nouns, they are demonstrative adjectives. E.g. This party is fun. These shoes are too expensive. That shirt is torn. Those papers arc soiled. 2.1.4.Relative pronouns relate subordinate clauses to main clauses. The relative pronouns are who, which, and that. E.g. I am the person who called earlier today. The door that I closed last night is now open. The boy whose knife I found lived across the street. Here is the painter whom we met last sununer. Notice that who, whose, and whom are used to refer to people, and that is used to refer to things. 2.1.5. Interrogative pronouns introduce question sentences. The interrogative pronouns are who, whose, whom, which, and what. Who is in the cellar? What is the date of his birth? 2.1.6. Indefinite pronouns refer to particular persons, places, or things in a vague and general manner. E.g. Somebody took the key to the storeroom - Each of the teachers receives a complimentary copy- Nobody has his or her ticket. Most indefinite pronouns function as singulars: another-anybody- anyone -anything –each- either everybody- everyone -neither -nobody no one- one -somebody -someone -something. 4  Some indefinite pronouns have a plural meaning only: both –few-many -several.Other indefinite pronouns do not clearly express either a singular or plural meaning: all -any -none - some 7. Reciprocal pronouns express a mutual relationship. There are two reciprocal pronouns: each other and one another. E.g. My brother and I help each other with our homework. To keep their spirits up, the trapped miners shouted frequently to one another. 3. Adjectives Adjectives are words that modify nouns and pronouns. They describe or tell something about the nouns they modify. Most adjectives answer the questions: What kind? Which one? and How many? E.g. happy girl - his desk - that boy - five books - many people - first class 1. Adjectives answering the question What kind? are descriptive. They tell the quality, kind or condition of the nouns they modify. E.g. red boat - tired children - heavy load - waving flag - blue water 2. Adjectives answering the question Which one? narrow or restrict the meaning of the modifier. § Possessive adjectives are possessive pronouns or possessive nouns used to restrict the ownership of a noun. E.g. my boat -our children -his load -someone’s flag- Maria’s car. § Demostrative adjectives point out a noun or a pronoun that is within reach or sight. E.g. this dress -these toys- that suitcase - those papers. § Interrogative adjectives introduce direct or indirect questions. The direct question asks for an answer and ends in a question mark. The indirect question is a sentence constructed so that it indirectly tells the question someone else asked, but the indirect question ends in a period. E.g. INDIRECT: He asked which tools he should take. INDIRECT: He wondered what tools he should take. INDIRECT: She asked whose tools were lying on the floor. DIRECT: Which tools should he take? DIRECT: What tools are needed? § Relative adjectives introduce clauses and modify the noun that follows. E.g.The girl whose dress was torn is Jane Smith- Take whatever supplies you can carry- I will buy whichever car is available. 3. Adjectives answering the question How many? are words that indicate a number to modify or describe the noun or pronouns. E.g. some people- each pet -three women -few answers - third grade 5  § Numerical adjectives use cardinal numbers to modify a noun or pronoun. E.g. four waiters six papers one shoe ten men Some numerical adjectives use ordinal numbers to modify a noun or pronoun. E.g. first class -twentieth century -second place - Twelfth Night § Indefinite adjectives use indefinite pronouns to designate the indefinite number of a noun or pronoun. E.g. some apples -each spoon -many people-few answers. 4.Adverbs Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Adverbs answer the questions How? Where? When? and How much? MODIFYING VERBS: They did their work (v) quickly ( adv).- He replied ( v) angrily(adv). MODIFYING ADJECTIVES: They were (v) somewhat (adv) happy Adverbs that answer the How? question are concerned with manner or way. E.g. She ran the race quickly. (adverb) - He yelled loudly. (adverb) Adverbs that answer the Where? question show location. E.g. They drove downtown. (adverb) She climbed upstairs. (adverb) - He stayed behind. (adverb) Adverbs that answer the When? question indicate time. E.g. The ship sailed yesterday. (adverb) - I expect an answer soon. (adverb) Those adverbs that answer the How much? question express degree. E.g.She is entirely correct. (adverb)- He was somewhat happy. (adverb) Most words ending in –ly- are Adverbs. E.g. He completed the task skillfully. (adverb) - She answered him courteously. (adverb). However, there are a few exceptions. E.g. The house provided a lovely view of the valley. (adjective) Your goblin mask is ugly. (adjective). 5.Prepositions A preposition is a word or words that function as a connective. The preposition connects its object(s) to some other word(s) in the sentence. § A preposition and its object(s)--usually a noun or pronoun--with its modifiers make up a prepositional phrase. E.g. Juan played against Aiden and won the game.( Prep.Obj / Prepositional phrase) All of his friends cheered for him. (.( Prep.Obj / Prepositional phrase) § Some of the most common prepositions are the following: about –above- across -after – against- among- around –before- behind- below -beneath -beside –between- beyond- but- by- despite- down- for- from -in –into- like –near- of- off- on- over- past- to- toward- under- until- upon- with 6  § Some prepositions are composed of more than one word and are made up from other parts of speech: according to -ahead of -along with -as far as- as well as- aside from -back of- because of- in spite of- instead of- in front of- together with § Caution: Do not confuse adverbs with prepositions. E.g. I went across slowly. (without an object == adverb) I went across the field. (with an object == preposition) We walked behind silently. (without an object == adverb) We walked behind the mall. (with an object == preposition) 6.Conjunctions A conjunction is a word that connects and shows a relationship between words, phrases, or clauses. § A phrase is two or more words acting as a part of speech. E.g. in the house (prepositional phrase) § A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb. An independent clause can stand by itself as a complete sentence. A dependent clause cannot stand by itself as a complete sentence E.g. Anita wants a new car. ( S –V) (independent clause). Because Anita wants a new car ( S-V) (independent clause) § There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating, and adverbial. 6.1.Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank: noun with noun, adjective with adjective, verb with verb, phrase with phrase, main clause with main clause, and subordinate clause with subordinate clause. E.g. Two nouns: Bring a pencil and some paper. Two phrases: Did she go to the store or to the game? Two independent clauses: John hit the ball, and he ran to first base. § The seven common coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. One simple way to remember them is to think of the acronym FANBOYS ( For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So). § Paired conjunctions such as either/or, neither/nor, and both/and are usually classified as coordinating conjunctions E.g. Either one of the students or the teacher had left a book on the table. 6.2. Subordinating conjunctions connect dependent clauses with main clauses. E.g. Because today is her birthday (dependent clause) , Anita wants a new car. (independent clause) 7  § The most common subordinating conjunctions are: after -although -as -as if -as long as -as soon as –because-before- but that- if- in order that- provided- since- so that- till- until- when- whenever- where- whereas- whether- wherever § Caution: Certain words can function as either conjunctions or prepositions. It is necessary to look ahead to see if the word introduces a clause with a subject and verb (conjunction) or takes an object (preposition). Some of the words with two functions are these: after, for, since, until. E.g. After the concert was over, we went home. (conjunction if a dependant clause) After the concert, we went home. (preposition if a phrase) 6.3. Adverbial conjunctions are used to connect two independent clauses. E.g. Today is Anita’s birthday (independent clause) ; therefore( Adv.conj) , she wants a new car. (independent clause) § Adverbial conjunctions include the following words and phrases: also, consequently, furthermore, hence, however, in fact, moreover, nevertheless, now, on the other hand, otherwise, soon, therefore, similarly, then, thus. 7.Interjections An interjection is one or more words used to convey strong emotions or surprise. When an interjection is used alone, it is usually punctuated with an exclamation mark. Interjections do not refer to anything, but simply express the speaker's emotion or wish. Grammatically, they occur in isolation as an exclamation or are added on to sentence § Interjections has two types : Mild interjection ( E.g. well,of course, such ) and strong interjection (E.g. Hurrah ! Bravo! Hush ! Ah ! Well done ! Alas! Oh ! Yes! Wawo! Ha!What ! Hello!). E.g. Ah! Here comes the actor at last - Hush! Don’t make a noise - Hark! I hear a drum - Alas! The soldier is dead - What! The house caught fire - Wow! Did you see that? § When it is used as part of a sentence, an interjection is usually followed by a comma. Oh, I left my car keys in the ignition and closed the door! Choice not chance that makes destiny 8