Conceptual Framework of Human Ecology PDF

Conceptual Framework of HUMAN ECOLOGY To understand Human Ecology is to take the risk of stepping out of our disciplinal anchors. – MET Mendoza Maria Emilinda T. Mendoza DSDS, CHE, UPLB HUMAN ECOLOGY IN THE CONTEXT OF THE ACADEMIC AND SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY...

Conceptual Framework of HUMAN ECOLOGY To understand Human Ecology is to take the risk of stepping out of our disciplinal anchors. – MET Mendoza Maria Emilinda T. Mendoza DSDS, CHE, UPLB HUMAN ECOLOGY IN THE CONTEXT OF THE ACADEMIC AND SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY Human Ecology is an Emergent Science – Human Ecology is relatively recent compared to the more classical disciplines considered to be its growth points. – While its disciplinal growth points can currently boast of hundreds of years of discourse and development, Human Ecology as a formal science in its own right can only claim as far as the 1920s when the term human ecology was first used as a sociological concept by Burgess, McKenzie and Park of the Chicago School (Young, 1974; Sorlin, 1986) and the mid-1930s when Sir Arthur Tansley formally defined ecosystem as a concept HUMAN ECOLOGY IN THE CONTEXT OF THE ACADEMIC AND SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY Human Ecology is an Emergent Science – This also means that it is a field of study that is still emerging and continues to transform as a response to human problems and needs as humans – whether as individuals or within the context of their social groups, engage the natural environment. HUMAN ECOLOGY IN THE CONTEXT OF THE ACADEMIC AND SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY Human Ecology is a Meta-science – HE goes with other forms of scientific activity thus providing other more direct disciplines access to issues and problems which are difficult to handle by just a single discipline. – just as mathematics is a meta-discipline in chemistry as a direct science, human ecology may serve as a meta-discipline for its more classical growth points such as sociology and biology to be relevant in current problematiques HUMAN ECOLOGY IN THE CONTEXT OF THE ACADEMIC AND SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY Human Ecology is a Trans-discipline – a trans-discipline is a field of study that continuously undergoes transformation, one that goes beyond disciplinary mind-sets into a re-conceptualization of phenomena, problems, goals, and approaches. It accepts complexity and pays attention to dynamic interactions (in space and time) between natural and human-made systems. Participation of end-users is essential, as is gender analysis. Accountability to end- users becomes intrinsic to the process. It enhances the possibilities for sustainable development (Peden, 1999). HUMAN ECOLOGY IN THE CONTEXT OF THE ACADEMIC AND SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY Human Ecology is a Trans-discipline – Human Ecology can be described as a trans- discipline, i.e., it is a discipline that reticulates other disciplines for purposes of approaching real interaction, without assuming a stance of superiority that it can change these disciplines. – The transdisciplinarity of Human Ecology enables it to transcend conventional single and multidisciplinal approaches but does not replace them.  Figure 4. Human Ecosystem Human Ecosystem Framework (Machlis, Force, Critical Resources and Dalton, 1997) Biophysical Resources Social System Socioeconomic Social Institutions Social Cycles Resources Social Order Cultural Resources  Environmental Integrity ENVIRONMENT HUMAN Stewardship (Biological, Empowered SYSTEMS Physical, Food and Organizations and (Individual, Social, Nutrition Family, Cultural, Institutions Security Community) Provision Political, Economic Technological) Developed Human Potentials CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF HUMAN ECOLOGY (CHE, UPLB, 2008) Explaining the CHE Framework The outer circle drawn in solid lines is meant to represent the goal of a well-balanced human ecological system: that of achieving total human ecological security. The conspicuousness of the goal of a functional human-ecological system is necessary to drive home the point that the study of human ecology cannot be divorced from current issues and problems impinging upon human ecological systems. This makes the study of human ecology problem- and solution- oriented. Explaining the CHE Framework Especially, but not necessarily exclusive to the Philippine context, the quest for human ecological security is currently represented primarily by – 1) the tasks of achieving food and nutrition security, – 2) the insurance of environmental integrity, – 3) the provision of opportunities, venues and services for the full development of human potentials, and – 4) the efforts toward well-capacitated, responsive and empowered organizations and institutions through which societal aspirations for such security can be planned, operationalized and implemented. – The arrangement of these objectives in circular form is to conceptualize such as fluid and subject to temporal and spatial variability. Explaining the CHE Framework By choosing to focus on the human ecological system, Human Ecology contends that human systems can never be divorced from an environmental context. – While a human system at any level of complexity can be conceptually isolated from its context with its temporal and spatial character, its full definition and analysis shall always necessarily include its environment. – This environment can be represented through a variety of biophysical, socio-cultural, eco-political and technological variables. Moreover, this environment will always have a dynamic relationship with human systems. Explaining the CHE Framework The dynamism of the human ecological system is importantly reflected by the solid arrows showing the characteristic interaction between humans and their environment. – Because human ecological system variables are in a state of interaction, the dynamism of the system is a constant. – In general, the permeability and dynamic nature of the human ecological system is represented by the broken line of the inner circle. Explaining the CHE Framework To ensure the attainment of its objectives, the human-environment interaction which defines the character of a specific human ecological system is importantly typified by steward-like human behavior and decisions. – This necessitates that the human concept of the environment is one where the latter, in its entirety, is seen as a provider for the sustenance of human being – singly or as an aggregate unit. – Equally important is the human perspective of this environment as a subject and recipient of sustainable use and careful, nurturing human behavior. Explaining the CHE Framework Thus, a human system (such as a family or a community) is in interaction with a specific variable of the environment (such as land) as represented by a family and/or communal land use. In the same manner, a social institution (such as a local government unit) is in interaction with a rapidly changing economic variable (such as price of basic commodities), as exemplified by policy reforms and/or refinements as a form of adaptation. Explaining the CHE Framework Human Ecology as a perspective and as a disciplinal endeavor takes as its unit of analysis the systemic nature of human-environment interaction. – This means considering the structural nature of a human ecological phenomenon while focusing on the functional and dynamic character of this phenomenon exemplified by the interaction between humans, either as individuals or as social groups, and environmental variables. – The identification, understanding and rethinking of forms of human-environment interaction which provide for the dynamic nature of any human ecological system are clearly the task of Human Ecology. Maraming Salamat Po!  ECOLOGY and HUMAN ECOLOGY HUME 100 aProf. Gillian D. Consignado ECOLOGY  ECOLOGY 1. “Oikos” – house “Logos” – study of study of how the occupants of the environment interact (Haeckel, 1869 in Miller, 1975) ECOLOGY German zoologist Ernst Haeckel “science of the habitat” (Lawrence 2001, 675). 2. The scientific study of relationships of living organisms with each other & their environment. “No living organism exists in isolation.” 3. The study of the structure & function of nature. -(Odum, 1974) Humankind as part of nature. 4. The study of the total flows of chemical elements, energy & water w/in a defined area, the interactions of these flows with the populations w/in & the effects of all human’s activities on cycle flows & populations. ▪ Relationships & Interactions  Over the Years Charles Elton, British ecologist (1927) – “scientific natural history” concerned with sociology and economics of animal Charles Elton Frederick Clements (1905) “the science of the community” Karl Friedrichs (1958) “ the science of the environment” Frederick Clements Ecology is an integrative science. ❑ Integrative science ▪ relationships and interactions of all living organisms with each other and with their environment ▪ diversity and variety among populations ▪ maintenance of biodiversity, including laws governing communal living and sharing of resources Major features of all life ✔ Interdependence ✔ Diversity ✔ Vulnerability  ECOLOGY and HUMAN ECOLOGY HUME 100 aProf. Gillian D. Consignado  HUMAN ECOLOGY  DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN ECOLOGY -Ellen Swallow Richards -In 1892 she used Haeckel’s term “oekology” to mean the science of the conditions of the health and well-being of everyday human life, elaborated as human ecology in 1907. HUMAN ECOLOGY 1. It is the field of study in which the principles of ecology are applied to man and his interactions with the environment. 2. The study of human interrelationships and interactions with the environment. 3. The study that seeks to understand human and his/her problems by studying individuals and populations as biological entities profoundly modified by culture. 4. The study of ecosystems as they affect and are affected by human beings. 5. It is the study of those settings mainly settlements, inhabited by those organisms called humans. ❖ Individual ❖ Family ❖ Community An interdisciplinary approach to understanding human- environmental systems. It seeks to combine understanding of the biophysical realities of human existence (such as dependence on natural resources) with the social and Dr. Robert Dyball psychological dimensions of Australia National University human health and well-being.  Human Ecology is all about Relationships Connections ✔ humans & their environment ✔ actions & consequences ✔ changes & adaptations Human Ecology takes its disciplinal root from Ecology and other disciplines.  Ecology Human Ecology Focus: Focus: Relationships Interactions of of living & the social non-living environment entities with with the their physical environment environment  Ecology Human Ecology Role: Role: Shaped by Shaper of and their shaped by environment their environment  Ecology Human Ecology Disciplinary Disciplinary base: base: Biophysical Social sciences sciences Biophysical sciences Ecology  is an interdisciplinary science. ☺  HUMAN ECOLOGY Concerned with the processes that limit and change this system over time (Sustainability?) Concerned with the social dimensions of current or proposed alternate arrangements (Fair, Just, & Ethical Issues?)  HUMAN ECOLOGY Fundamental concern on ecological sustainability and social justice Improvement of what, by what means, and in whose interest  HUMAN ECOLOGY Ultimately, Human Ecology is motivated by care and concern for the future. It seeks to imagine what it might be to live and do well in a humane, sustainable and worthwhile world and to invite and enthuse broader community commitment to work towards realizing those futures.  Environmental Integrity ENVIRONMENT (Biological, HUMAN Stewardship Physical, Empowered SYSTEMS Social, Food and Organizations (Individual, Cultural, Nutrition Political, and Institutions Family, Economic Security Provision Community) Technological) Developed Human Potentials CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF HUMAN ECOLOGY (CHE, UPLB, 2008) Why is there a need for the human ecological perspective?  Stewards not Masters When we realize that we are Stewards Not Masters of creation then our natural resources will be wisely utilized for masters get what they want at any cost but Stewards carefully weigh gains against the loss such ‘gains’ may cause. Respecters not Defilers of Life When we recognize that there are other lives than our lives in this planet And that our lives and their lives are interconnected Artwork by: Suzanne Duranceau Then we learn to be responsible in how we treat our natural resources For wanton destruction of the environment is disrespect for life and is sheer selfishness.  Defenders not mere Dependents When we grasp the fact that we are Defenders and not mere Dependents of nature then we will do whatever is necessary to conserve our natural resources and prevent all forms of environmental abuse for it is one best way of giving back to life’s sustaining source.  “To understand Human Ecology is to take the risk of stepping out of our disciplinal anchors.” – MET Mendoza The heart of change is a change of heart. – John Kotter  BASIC HUME 100 CONCEPTS IN ECOLOGY 5 Levels of Ecological Organization 1. Organisms -Anything that is living -Occupies a place of area called habitat -Has a niche : the resources it needs to survive  Ancient bristlecone pine trees 2. Populations - Group of interbreeding organisms living within a specific area - Es. A flock of birds Characteristics: -Size -Extends through time, contraction and expansion 3. Community A number of populations of different organisms that occupy & interact in a given area Desert community 4. Ecosystem - Any defined area of nature that includes living organisms & non-living substances interacting with each other  4. Ecosystem A major unit of Ecology Eco- relates to the environment System- a collection of related parts that function as a unit (Smith and Smith, 2002)  Forest ecosystem Components of an Ecosystem  Structural components 1. Non-living (abiotic) components 2. Living (biotic) components Types of relationship a. Predator-prey interaction – one organism serves as the food source for another Can this be beneficial to the prey population? b. Commensalism – relationship between species that is beneficial to one, but neutral or of no benefit to the other c. Mutualism – beneficial to both organisms; the interaction is necessary for the survival and growth of each species d. Parasitism – interaction between two species in which one benefits at the expense of the other organism (parasite-host)  Relationships It grows as a small seedling then grows larger enough. It starts to snuff out the host plant. By that point it can stand on its own and the host plant decays, leaving a hollowed out center. Strangler Fig  Kinds of Biotic Components 1. Producers – auto-trophs/ self-productive 2. Consumers (Macro-consumers) – herbivores, carnivore and omnivores 3. Decomposers (Micro-consumers) – saprotrophs  Functional Components Functional Components a. Energy Flow – For life to exist, the earth must constantly receive inputs of energy from the sun and make outputs of heat energy which are passed to outer space. Functional Components b. Food Chain – It is a series of feeding relationships between organisms that shows who eats whom. Functional Components c. Ecological Diversity – A generalization that has grown from the studies of biotic communities is that species diversity enhances stability in an ecosystem. Biodiversity – nature’s richness of life forms which include the number and degree of genes species and the ecosystem in a given assemblage Importance: ethical and aesthetic; economic; essential services provided by natural ecosystem Stratification - Refers to separations between organisms in space or time An ecosystem can be stratified in space either vertically (layers) or horizontally (concentric circles).  Spatial Stratification Forest roof Middle layer Lower layer Forest floor Spatial Stratification Functional Components d. Evolution happens over a long period of time which entails the changes in the population’s collective genetic material, natural collection, nutrition, adaptive traits, differential reproduction Functional Components e. Ecological Succession process whereby an ecosystem changes from simple community into a complex and relatively stable one Ecological Succession Functional Components f. Ecological Control or Cybernetics regulating itself based on information feedback; concept of limit range  What can ecosystems provide? Schematic representation of the ecosystem services selected by UNEP, as categorized in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Supporting services: ecosystem services that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services nutrient dispersal and cycling, seed dispersal, primary production Provisioning services: products obtained from ecosystems food (including seafood and game), crops, wild foods, and spices, water, minerals (including diatomite) pharmaceuticals, biochemicals, and industrial products energy (hydropower, biomass fuels) Regulating services: benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes, carbon sequestration and climate regulation, waste decomposition and detoxification, purification of water and air, crop pollination, pest and disease control Cultural services: nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experiences cultural, intellectual and spiritual inspiration, recreational experiences (including ecotourism) scientific discovery Natural Ecological Cycle (Geologic Cycle) 1. Tectonic Cycle 2. Hydrological Cycle 3. Biogeochemical Cycle 4. Rock Cycle 5. Ecosphere The grand system that includes all life forms and the areas on/in which they exist Biosphere Hydrosphere Atmosphere Lithosphere  “Human Ecology” by Robert Dyball An excerpt from the forthcoming Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability Volume 4: Natural Resources and Sustainability. Available at www.berkshirepublishing.com. Request Berkshire Titles e Opta cum cus nonsequibus s i omnia is doluptatur m int liquam, il ipsunte stiatem veni cus aut lit ellam qui quiduci psunt. Andis imi, sitem quis et l atemporum e t faceperum. Doluptate sant peraestrum que am, sit rehendebis as expli- tature maxim aute pore nis as unt ullorem perunde mporrum http://bit.ly/libraryrequest erit plab is estiorpor adi aut faccum qui alias mod ut eaqui idenim res ex. Ictotatemquo tore pro te erae parcil incte nos maximusam, autem quae pratiunt quam, conecatquo esto everore sediam quis assumque voloren ditatur, alibeat accae sitium re nost. H  Human Ecology Human ecology is an interdisciplinary approach to that rely on multifaceted analyses. Sustainability problems understanding human-environmental systems. The field typically involve a degree of scientific uncertainty, in that seeks to combine understanding of the biophysical reali- it is not always possible to gauge accurately the status of ties of human existence (such as dependence on natural the key environmental variables that have to be managed. resources) with the social and psychological dimensions For example, it is hard to assess the carbon stored in agri- of human health and well-being. cultural landscapes under different management regimes, yet this could be a key element in promoting sustainable H uman ecology focuses on understanding humans and farming practices. In addition, sustainability problems t their environments as parts of a whole. Although the often have no clear boundaries and cut across institutional f field predates current debates about sustainability, it shares and jurisdictional boundaries, including different depart- a concern for the limited capacity of the Earth to meet the mental responsibilities or state and national borders, such demands that humans are placing on it. Human ecology r as when atmospheric pollution from a smokestack in one is also concerned with ethical questions about how fairly state causes acidification in the forests of its neighbor. In D environmental resources are shared among people and many cases the ultimate cause of a problem is at a great dis- other living things, and identifying the rights and wrongs e tance in time or space from its effect. For example, a con- l of existing situations and proposed alternatives. Where sumer’s choice of coffee bought from a local supermarket the human-environment system is changing in ways that p can affect, for better or worse, the environmental health of cause problems for people, human ecology focuses on what a coffee plantation landscape in a distant country. Many m is ultimately driving that change, and the consequences. problems are the unforeseen and unintended consequences By seeking the ultimate, rather than immediate, causes of human activity that made perfect sense at the time. Irri- a of change, human ecology typically locates the sources gating a property to increase food yields makes sense, as S of many problems in aspects of the dominant culture, its does building freeways to relieve traffic congestion. Yet an attendant values, and resulting human behavior. The chal- unintended consequence of irrigation might be to mobilize lenge then is to identify interventions that will result in naturally occurring salts in the soil and eventually render improved environmental outcomes and that are fair and it useless for farming; similarly, freeways can make private acceptable to the people who are affected. Human ecolo- vehicle travel choices more attractive and result in even gists are then typically committed to act as change agents greater congestion as more people adopt this method of by seeking interventions that improve the health and well- transport. Problems can even defy definition. Building being of people in a humane and sustainable manner. a hydropower station on a river might be the solution to a problem of renewable energy generation but the cause Human Ecology and Sustainability of a problem for river ecology and fish populations. This complexity is compounded as individuals and groups pro- Human ecology is able to make a valuable contribution to mote often-conflicting options for intervention to improve understanding and improving situations that are labeled a situation, and various judgments about the desirability of​ as sustainability problems because it provides approaches proposed solutions. 308  Human Ecology 309 With sustainability problems, pathways to improvement seeks to provide a conceptual framework for research and will often involve changes to human attitudes and behav- learning that combines knowledge about what is and what iors as much as they will involve new or changing tech- needs to be done, with understanding about what motivates nology. Certainly technology can improve the efficiency and enables individuals and societies to act on the basis of with which an environmental resource is extracted and that knowledge. Human ecologists are agents of change, managed and reduce the unit cost of the good produced, seeking to help societies achieve humane and sustainable but improving efficient supply cannot always keep up with futures. total increasing demand. Modern jet aircraft can be more efficient as measured by the energy cost of each passenger Ecology and Human Ecology transported per mile, but with soaring passenger numbers the total energy cost of the sector will increase. Expecting Human ecology has its origins in ecology more gener- changes in people’s behavior requires ethical considerations ally. The term ecology was originally coined by the Ger- of justice and fairness in terms of how people are engaged man zoologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866 to mean, loosely, in the development of proposed solutions and, when costs the “science of the habitat” (Lawrence 2001, 675). At this are involved, how the burden of those costs is distrib- basic level, human ecology can be thought of as the study uted. This ethical concern may also extend to species other of the environmental conditions in which human beings than humans. With its concern for the ethical dimension, developed, and the relationship of humans to the ecosys- human ecology has a normative dimension that tems that support them and which they affect. other sciences often lack or downplay. The same principles apply to the ecol- Human ecology’s concern for the ogy of any species, but in the case sociocultural dimensions of sus- of humans, the number of humans tainability problems is coupled with on the planet, their presence in the recognition that ecosystems almost all terrestrial ecosystems, have a finite capacity to service the and their impact on the planet is demands human place on them. If largely the product of the evo- t human demands on environmental lution of human capacity for f resources exceed the rate at which culture. If success is mea- those resources are naturally sured by sheer numbers and a replenished, then the resource ability to colonize nearly r will inevitably be exhausted. At every environment on the D best, for very large stocks, this planet, then culture was an point of exhaustion may be far evolutionary advantage. e off into the future, which might The need to take cul- l allow postponing the inevitable ture and its effects seriously p requirement for human behav- makes the study of the ecol- ioral change. A similar principle ogy of humans different from m applies to pollution: problems the ecology of other animals. a arise when rates of accumulation Other species exhibit behav- S exceed the natural capacity of the ioral adaptation to their sur- ecosystem to absorb pollutants. The roundings, but for humans unequivocal evidence is that human sociocultural adaptation is the use of key resources is now rapidly prime mechanism for responding approaching their limits, and many people to environmental change. Humans already do not have access to sufficient resources can learn and adapt their behavior based on to maintain minimal standards of health and well-being. information provided by other humans, in stories passed The complex nature of sustainability problems means from generation to generation and enshrined in enduring that they are best tackled using integrative, holistic social institutions. Humans have a highly developed abil- approaches that combine traditional disciplinary knowl- ity to imagine consequences of future action, although they edge with other insights into the human condition, people’s do not necessarily act to avoid those consequences. Artistic beliefs and values, and their aspirations and motivations. creativity enables the celebration of traditional ways of liv- Human ecology draws these insights from the social sci- ing and the imagination of alternative futures. Imagination ences, as well as the humanities; arts and design; and lay, and inventiveness also allow humans to develop tools and community, and nonacademic knowledge bases. The field technologies that extend their capacity to access resources 310 Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability: Ecosystem Management and Sustainability from the environment and to rapidly change the efficiency such as urban design and regional planning, these pro- with which they can convert resources into a service. These grams brought together a range of disciplines to apply characteristics of cultural adaptation, social and individ- their unique insights jointly to a given problem. Pragmati- ual learning, institutional arrangements, art and creativity, cally focused, these approaches collected insights from the imagination, and technology, while not necessarily unique contributing disciplines, without defining a unifying to humans, are developed to highly complex levels in them. framework. The frameworks, assumptions, and method- ologies are not transformed through their interactions with Development of Human Ecology other disciplinary experts. Nevertheless, this multidisci- plinary approach continues to be practiced by those who As human ecology developed out of ecology and the natu- place a premium on maintaining forums in which different ral sciences, it followed a number of different trajectories. disciplines can share their insights. Current academic programs using the term human ecology often exhibit different characteristic concerns depending Interdisciplinary Human Ecology on which of these pathways they followed.” Ellen Swallow Richards, born in Massachusetts in Human ecologists have sought to define a genuinely inter- 1842, is one pioneer of the discipline. Richards was the first disciplinary field of study, in which the understanding woman graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technol- achieved is more than the sum of the contributing parts. ogy (MIT), graduating with a bachelor of science degree in The challenge is to retain the power of disciplinary thinking chemistry in 1873. She also obtained a master’s degree, but while avoiding the partiality of such work. Interdisciplin- the award of a PhD was beyond what MIT at that time was ary human ecology tackles complex sustainability problems prepared to confer on a woman. Her disciplinary expertise with approaches that have rigor but are not rigid. It may use was in industrial chemistry, but she had broader interests in a systems-based framework, which enables consideration of the social movements of the day, including women’s issues the influence and constraints of both social and biophysical and progressive social change more generally. In 1892 she drivers of change. The system in question, its boundaries, used Haeckel’s term oekology to mean the science of the component parts, and its dynamics are defined by partici- conditions of the health and well-being of everyday human t pating stakeholders. Such an approach enables the integra- life, elaborated as human ecology in 1907. But the biologi- f tion of the diverse values, desires, and needs of the human cal scientists resisted extending the concept of ecology to actors with the capacity of the environment. a include social dimensions, and the term home economics was r adopted in its place. Human ecology programs that derive As a college dedicated to human ecology, the College from this lineage are still common in the United States D of the Atlantic in Bar Harbor, Maine, exemplifies the today, typified by programs in education and childhood graduate attributes typical of a student of human ecology. le studies, nursing, family and community well-being, and It bases its curriculum on the following characteristics: local applied policy issues. p Today the study of human ecology may be defined by Be creative: use the imaginative and inventive powers of the interests, methods, and intellectual domain of particu- the human mind to tackle sustainability problems with m lar disciplines. One strand of human ecology as a field of original and adaptable approaches. This commitment to a study arose within the sociology department at the Uni- creativity has to include a willingness to take risks and versity of Chicago in the 1920s. In this school of thought, S sometimes fail, so long as failure is acknowledged and ecological terms from the biosciences are applied to social learned from. change processes, using concepts such as competition, suc- Think critically: reflect critically on the partiality of cession, web of life, and mutual interdependence. Versions information, including the unavoidable prejudicial ele- of human ecology also developed within other social sci- ments that arise from human habits, biases, and assump- ence disciplines, such as geography, anthropology, and tions. This ability to think critically includes reflection ethnology, but beyond contesting ownership of the name, on one’s own limitations and preconceptions. these versions of human ecology have little in common. Engage with community: involve individuals, commu- Growing environmental awareness in the 1960s gave nities, and institutions in the design and implementation rise to a different approach to human ecology. This mul- of solutions to their problems. This includes a willing- tidisciplinary human ecology recognized the limited ness to learn from their knowledge and traditions. It contribution that single disciplines could, by themselves, also requires participants to connect theory and practice. make to understand the complexity of human-induced eco- Communicate: communication is understood to be pro- logical problems. Typically arising in applied professions cesses of learning and not merely the transmission of  human ecology 311 knowledge from one party to the other. Communication a whole-of-system approach to the material and energy can include artistic and motivational elements. flows of Hong Kong and the sociocultural drivers of those Integrate elements: think comprehensively about situa- flows. The study was a seminal work in research into urban tions as wholes. The characteristic behavior of the whole metabolism and is an exemplar of research incorporating emerges from, but cannot be reduced to, the interactions both the quantifiable and qualitative dimensions of sus- of the parts. Sustainability is a description of the behav- tainability. In the twenty-first century, ANU continues to ior of a system of interest to an individual or group as it be a leader in the field of human ecology through its teach- changes or remains constant over time. ing and research program, as well as through open discus- Practice interdisciplinarity: recognize the strength and sion at the Human Ecology Forum. depth of disciplinary thinking and the crucial contri- The aforementioned College of the Atlantic (COA) is bution it can make to solving problems, while being entirely dedicated to the study of human ecology. COA aware of its partiality. Combining different contribu- places great emphasis on developing an applied approach tions within suitable conceptual frameworks is crucial through working collaborations with local and interna- to creating the new knowledge needed to tackle sustain- tional communities. Over the years a number of initiatives ability problems. originating from student projects have, through commu- As an evolving approach to defining and investigating nity engagement, been adopted in practice, such as the its subject matter, human ecology may appear to have a Maine legislature’s adoption of beverage recycling as a con- complex and occasionally contradictory history. This same sequence of work conducted by COA students. The college diversity, however, prepares human ecology to contrib- offers ongoing demonstration projects of applied human ute new approaches to complex and previous intractable ecology in areas of collaborative decision making, environ- problems mental design, conservation ecology, ecological education, green business, and watershed-based regional planning. COA has also received numerous awards for institutional Human Ecology in Action resource management, campus buildings, and leadership in its commitment to carbon neutrality. t Many university-based human ecology programs around Human ecology research focuses on a variety of develop- f the world are sponsoring research and publishing that con- ment issues. Researchers from the Department of Human tinue to define the field and also lead to public sustain- Ecology at the University of Tokyo have been a ability initiatives. In addition, organizations involved in interdisciplinary research r such as the Society for Human Ecology, into relationships between human D the Commonwealth Human Ecology and environmental health in rap- Council, and the German Society for idly developing Asian countries. e Human Ecology bring practitioners Studying rural areas, research l together to advance the field teams have tracked changes p As early as 1972, following a to a broad range of indica- meeting organized by the Com- tors of human well-being, m monwealth Human Ecology Council such as income, labor a (CHEC) in Hong Kong, a group arrangements, food and S of researchers, primarily based in nutrition, exposure to the Human Ecology program of various chemical com- the Australian National Uni- pounds, and health. versity (ANU), undertook a Policy interventions major study of the city of designed to inf luence Hong Kong and its popu- national development can lation. Published under be initially successful, but the auspices of the United then after a delay, negative Nations Educational, Sci- consequences appear. An entific and Cultural Orga- example is rising food nization (UNESCO) as production: this may The Ecology of a City and Its result in improved nutri- People (Boyden et al. 1981), tion, but a consequent ris- this landmark study applied ing chemical burden in the 312 Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability: Ecosystem Management and Sustainability local environmental eventually leads to potential risks for Further Readings community health. The relationship between chemical Agyeman, Julian; Bullard, Robert D.; & Evans, Bob. (Eds.). (2003). Just levels and community health is nonlinear, however, with sustainabilities: Development in an unequal world. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. different individuals and communities affected to differ- Boyden, Stephen. (2003). The biology of civilisation: Understanding human ent degrees for a range of reasons detectable only at the culture as a force in nature. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press. local scale. Interdisciplinary human ecological research can Boyden, Stephen; Millar, Sheelagh; Newcombe, Ken; & O’Neill, suggest ways that policy interventions can be targeted to Beverley. (1981). The ecology of a city and its people: The case of Hong Kong. Canberra, Australia: Australia National University Press. community involvement to achieve a balance of technologi- Brown, Valerie A.; Harris, John A.; & Russell, Jacqueline Y. (Eds.). cal and social initiatives that can produce more consistently (2010). Tackling wicked problems through the transdisciplinary imagina- positive outcomes. tion. London: Earthscan. Chapin, F. Stuart, III; Kofinas, Gary P.; & Folke, Carl. (Eds.). (2009). Principles of ecosystem stewardship: Resilience-based natural resource Future Directions management in a changing world. New York: Springer. Chivian, Eric, & Bernstein, Aaron. (Eds.). (2008). Sustaining life: How Research in human ecology has been hampered by the human health depends on biodiversity. Oxford, UK: Oxford University field’s nontraditional nature, including perceptions that it is Press. Dauvergne, Peter. (2008). The shadows of consumption: Consequences for the not a proper science. It has been challenging to find fund- global environment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ing bodies willing and able to support interdisciplinary Dyball, Robert, & Newell, Barry. (2012). Understanding human ecology. research or journals willing to publish the results. Because London: Earthscan. it is an awkward fit within the traditional departmental Hulme, Mike. (2009). Why we disagree about climate change: Understanding controversy, inaction, and opportunity. New York: Cambridge structures of the university system, recognition of merit University Press. and pathways for career development have been limited. Keen, Meg; Brown, Valerie A.; & Dyball, Rob. (Eds.). (2005). Social Although these barriers continue to exist, there is growing learning in environmental management: Towards a sustainable future. recognition of the need for approaches like human ecology London: Earthscan. Lawrence, Roderick J. (2001). Human ecology. In Mostafa Kamal Tolba to tackle sustainability challenges. The Ecological Soci- (Ed.), Our fragile world: Challenges and opportunities for sustainable ety of America’s (ESA) Planetary Stewardship Initiative development (Vol. 1, pp. 675–693). Oxford, UK: Encyclopedia of Life t (Power and Chapin 2009) is devoted to fostering interdis- Support Systems (EOLSS) Publishers. f ciplinary collaboration and defining the scientific needs to Merchant, Carolyn. (2007). American environmental history: An introduc- tion. New York: Columbia University Press. encourage sustainable social and ecological change. ESA’s a Midgley, Gerald. (2000). Systemic intervention: Philosophy, methodology, Human Ecology Section was established to discuss and and practice. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum. r apply the ideas and methods of human ecology and allied Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems and human well- D disciplines. The Proceedings of the National Academy of being: Synthesis. Washington, DC: Island Press. Ostrom, Elinor. (1990). Governing the commons: The evolution of Science (PNAS) also include a sustainability science sec- e institutions for collective action. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge tion committed to publishing research dealing with the l University Press. interactions between natural and social systems and their Pimental, David; Westra, Laura; & Noss, Reed F. (Eds.). (2000). p impacts on sustainability. Leading academic institutions, Ecological integrity: Integrating environment, conservation, and health. Washington, DC: Island Press. including Stanford University in California, are also estab- m Power, Mary E., & Chapin, F. Stuart, III. (2009). Planetary steward- lishing groups to investigate sustainability issues with a ship. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 7(8), 399. a human-ecological perspective. With these and other arenas Rosa, Eugene, A.; Diekmann, Andreas; Dietz, Thomas; & Jaeger, Carlo S opening up, human ecology will be well placed to make its C. (2009). Human footprints on the global environment: Threats to sus- tainability. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. contribution to sustainability challenges. Scheffer, Marten. (2009). Critical transitions in nature and society. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Robert DYBALL Schutkowski, Holger. (2006). Human ecology: Biocultural adaptations in Australian National University human communities. Berlin: Springer. Walker, Brian, & Salt, David. (2006). Resilience thinking: Sustaining eco- See also Agricultural Intensification; Biogeography; Con- systems and people in a changing world. Washington, DC: Island Press. Wilkinson, Richard, & Pickett, Kate. (2009). The spirit level: Why greater servation Biology; Ecosystem Services; Indigenous and equality makes societies stronger. New York: Bloomsbury Press. Traditional Knowledge; Land-Use and Land Cover Young, Gerald L. (1978). Human ecology as an interdisciplinary domain: Change—Management; Permaculture; Urban Agriculture An epistemological bibliography. Monticello, IL: Vance Bibliographies.. “ The Business of Sustainability [vol. 2] would make an impressive stand-alone business reference. Some of the concepts pages from Volume 1, The Spirit of Sustainability addressed, e.g., “triple bottom line,” “peace through commerce,” and “base of the pyramid,“ though not new, are not widely known and deserve the extra prominence that this book confers. —Choice, November 2009 ” Volumes 1–10 2010–2011 Available in print and online Volumes can be ordered directly from Berkshire, through all major library suppliers, and from Amazon.com and BN.com. For prepublication and other discounts, and for information about online and ebook availability, contact Amy Fredsall at [email protected] or call +1 413 528 0206. www.berkshirepublishing.com SEND ORDERS TO: Place my order for the Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability or individual volumes: Invoice to: _________________________________________________________ Berkshire Publishing Group 122 Castle Street _________________________________________________________________________ Great Barrington, MA Payment enclosed Bill my credit card: 01230-1506 Account #:________________________________________Expiration Date:_________ Tel +1 413 528 0206 Visa Mastercard Fax + 1 413 541 0076 Please e-mail us with updates and sample. Email:___________________________ Volume 1 and 2 will ship immediately, other volumes will ship as soon as published. Title ISBN Publication Pre-Publication Price Quantity Date Price Volume1: The Spirit of Sustainability 978-1-933782-15-7 2010 $135.00 Volume 2: The Business of Sustainability 978-1-933782-13-3 2010 $135.00 Volume 3: The Law & Politics of Sustainability 978-1-933782-14-0 2010 $120.00 $135.00 Volume 4: Natural Resources & 978-1-933782-54-6 2011 $120.00 $135.00 Sustainability Volume 5: Ecosystem Management and 978-1-933782-16-4 2011 $120.00 $135.00 Sustainability Volume 6: Measurements, Indicators, and 978-1-933782-40-9 2011 $120.00 $135.00 Research Methods Volume 7: China and India: Assessing 978-1-933782-69-0 2011 $120.00 $135.00 Sustainability Volume 8: The Americas & Oceania: 978-1-933782-18-8 2011 $120.00 $135.00 Assessing Sustainability Volume 9: Afro-Eurasia: Assessing 978-1-933782-19-5 2011 $120.00 $135.00 Sustainability Volume 10: The Future of Sustainability 978-1-933782-63-8 2011 $120.00 $135.00 Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability, 978-1-933782-01-0 2011 $1225 $1500.00 10-Volumes (complete set) THE HUMAN SYSTEM HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS Adaptation: Respond Control Manipulate  1. Biological Characteristics a. Bipedal Locomotion Balance Sight Prehensile forelimbs Positive feedback mechanism b. Manipulative Skill  Power grip Precision grip c. Well-developed Vocal System Speech vs. Call System  Need for communication Physical mechanisms present Specific Anatomical Attributes for Speech : Well-developed brain Homo symbolicus Language Acquisition Device (LAD) Pharynx Tongue Auditory apparatus  Developed Human Brain Cerebral Cortex Speech Emotional aspects Logic Integration of Order speech Spatial  2. Social Characteristics a. Dev’t of Technology Freedom… Tools to make other tools Frequency & use Tool dependence b. Use of Language Distinctly human Symbolizing First non-human to acquire a human language 2007 (42 yrs) +  Distinct Features of Speech: ✔Open ✔Arbitrary ✔Stimulus-free ✔Discrete  Social Learning People engage in group living because it offers them opportunity for learning and development.  Socialization Process where learning takes place is called socialization which enables individuals to learns the norms, values, languages, and the like.  Social Organization The single most crucial factor underlying social organization is kinship. Human Needs 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Basic Premises individuals must satisfy The higher up the hierarchy, the lower-level deficit needs before more difficult it is to satisfy the progressing to meet higher-level needs associated with that growth needs. stage, because of the later clarified that satisfaction of interpersonal and environmental a need is not an “all-or-none” barriers phenomenon Hierarchy of needs summary Human beings are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Needs are organized in a hierarchy of prepotency in which more basic needs must be more or less met (rather than all or none) before higher needs. The order of needs is not rigid but may be flexible based on external circumstances or individual differences. Most behavior is multi-motivated, that is, simultaneously determined by more than one basic need.  Self-actualization "A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be at peace with himself. What a man can be, he must be.... It refers to man's desire for fulfillment, namely to the tendency for him to become actually what he is potentially: to become everything that one is capable of becoming..." Characteristics of Self- Actualizing People Realistic & Reasonable Self-acceptance Spontaneity, Simplicity, Naturalness  Focus of Problem Centering Detachment: The Need for Privacy Autonomy: Independent of Culture & Environment  Peak Experiences Interpersonal Relations Democratic Values & Attitudes Philosophical & Has a Sense of Humor  Creativity Imperfections The SA person retains childlike qualities yet is very wise. Processes Necessary for Self-Actualization ▪ Self-exploration ▪ Action The deeper the self-exploration, the closer one comes to self-actualization.  Just answer T or F to each question (if you cannot answer 100% True then answer F): 1. Other people are not better off or more fortunate than me. 2. I accept myself as I am & am happy with myself. 3. I enjoy socializing. 4. I deserve love & respect. 5. I feel valued & needed. 6. I don't need others to tell me I have done a good job. 7. Being myself is important. 8. I make friends easily. 9. I can accept criticism without feeling put down. 10. I admit my mistakes openly. 11. I never hide my true feelings. 12. I always speak up for myself & put my views across. 13. I am a happy, carefree person. 14. I don't worry what others think of my views. 15. I don't need others' approval to feel good. 16. I don't feel guilty about doing or saying what I want. RESULTS of SELF-ESTEEM TEST (K. Perera) Count the total number of TRUE answers YOU gave Self-esteem is a key component in happiness & self-actualization. 15-16: YOU HAVE A VERY HIGH LEVEL OF SELF ESTEEM ! 10-14: YOU HAVE A HIGH LEVEL OF SELF-ESTEEM! ☺ BELOW 10: LOW SELF ESTEEM - IT'S HOLDING YOU BACK 2. J.E. Montgomery’s Human Needs ✔Need to Relate to Others ✔Need for a Wholesome Self-concept True friends are friends forever ! ✔ Need for Social & Psychological Stimulation ✔ Creative & Transcendental Needs  ✔ Need to Fulfill Values An internalized standard or guidepoint  HUMAN POTENTIALS AND LIMITS Potential – represents the capacity to develop, to behave and to accomplish which refers to undeveloped or latent ability of each individual  HUMAN POTENTIALS AND LIMITS Limit – refers to what an individual or group cannot develop, exhibit or accomplish which is also determined by his/her genetic endowment HUMAN FAMILY  The Concept of Family Family – as the basic foundation of social organization is another important concern in the study of human system Theories of Origin (Family) Most anthropologists look at the physiological and social nature of humans and compare it with other species on the basis of survival requirements. Family as an Ecosystem Family with its members interacting with one another in a particular physical or social boundary, is an ecosystem.  a. Family members Elements of a Family Ecosystem b. Environment c. Family organization  Family boundaries or Family household units are Boundaries flexible. Boundaries are and determined by the influx Interfaces of information to the family. Adaptation and Exchanges Family is an open system allowing exchanges of material and energy with other systems. HUMAN COMMUNITY  HUMAN COMMUNITY ✔ A place to live in ✔ A spatial unit ✔ A way of life ✔ A social system Community It is composed of people living together in a geographical area with similar characteristics, interests, goals/ need, share the same values & depend on similar resources.  Demography ▪ The study of populations ▪ Geographic boundary ▪ Population size, growth, composition, density, trends  Community as a Spatial Unit 1) Physical Environment/ Habitat ▪ Shape- distribution or construction of structures; Topography IRRI UPLB  Hugo Yonzon, 1974 ▪ Location * “Mainit”: Bay * Hot springs * Friars – public baths * Los Baños (1589) * 1615- separate ▪Size- number of people * Affects the degree of Man - Environment Interaction * Natural Resources & Culture 2) 5 Ecological Processes * Land use & space competition ▪ Concentration ▪ Centralization - centers of activity  Vega Center ▪ Segregation- clusters of like units ▪ Invasion- gradual penetration of an area ▪ Succession – complete change in population type or use of land Community as a Social System ✔Social System -highly organized set of socially significant relationships between 2 or more persons/groups ✔The system of interaction of the various units, which are highly related, that compose the community. Interaction Dynamism TYPES OF INTERACTION  Types of Interaction ▪Cooperation- joint striving for a goal * Impersonal * Mutual Aid Groups ▪Amalgamation - merging ▪Assimilation - blending or sharing of ways of life ▪Competition- struggle for a goal iOS or Android? ▪Conflict- violent opposition ▪Accommodation- conscious efforts at making things work Boundaries ▪ Physical/Geographic ▪ Psychological- acceptance ▪ Social ??? Community as an Organization/ Social Group ▪Properties: * Members * Membership * Roles & Norms DY ▪Distinction * Territorial boundary * Roles & Norms * Ability to provide for needs of population ENVIRONMENT Biophysical (Natural) System ENVIRONMENT 1. It is the total setting in which a given object rests or a given action takes place. 2. The physical, living & non-living surroundings of society with which it stands in a reciprocal relationship. 3. The biotic and abiotic surroundings of society & their existing interactions. -(Sajise, 1992) 4. Commonly perceived as the immediate surroundings of an individual. The totality of the space, elements & interactions Human & society as important elements  Various Conceptualizations of the Environment Form the Viewpoint of Human Physiology 1. Internal Environment The environment of cells, organs, tissues and systems within the body. The quality and stability of the internal environment is primarily defined by the characteristics and conditions of the individual. 2. External Environment The external environment such as the biophysical and social affects the condition and behavior of the individual. Form the Viewpoint of the Family Management 1. Micro Environment - The immediate physical and social surroundings of a household which includes the following: a) the natural and biological systems b) the material technologies c) organized social system of family members and others who are responsible and interact to promote the goals of that micro-system Form the Viewpoint of the Family Management 2. Macro Environment - It is composed of the micro-environments which contribute to resources inputs (energy, goods and services and information) to the household and community environments and receive outputs from these smaller subsytems From the Viewpoint of Resource Management 1) Natural Environment - Both the physical and biological materials and energies a) Physical or Inorganic Environment - Consists largely of the cosmic forces, the sun’s heat and energy and other cosmic forces which cause climate changes. b) Biological Environment - All loving organisms, microorganisms, parasites, insects and plants and animals, which relate symbiotically in nature, including man. 2) Man-built Environment - the transformation of the natural physical and biological environments which occur in the process of man adapting nature to his needs. a) Socio-physical Environment - Include the physical or inorganic materials which are transformed to meet human needs. b) Socio-biological Environment - Consist of the plants and animals bred or cultivated as the basis for food, clothing and shelter. 3) Behavioral Environment - concerns with human behavior processes as man makes adjustments to his environment. a) Socio-psychological environment - it is consists of values, attitudes, expectations, customs, traditions, etc. which make up the information and decision-making patterns of individuals or groups. b) Institutional environment - The composite or derivatives that control environments understood to be human institutions. The institutional environments have the general characteristics of the following: Economic Political Educational Ethical aesthetic The Interaction System  Interrelatedness ❑ All living organisms respond to individual factors in their environment  Man has a great potential to survive due to cultural evolution. Man: from a natural organism to a technological one. Flexibility of Humans ❑ Human Homeostasis ❑ Homeostatic limits ❑ Irreversible damage Concepts in Human-Environment Interactions A. Stress - is an environmental constraint that elicits a human response a. Biophysical b. Social * Natural & Human-induced B. Human Adaptation ❖ Functional & Structural Characteristics for COPING ❖ “Plasticity” Human Adaptation as a Process For survival & perpetuation in his ever- changing habitat 1. Biological Process Long adaptive changes mediated by genetic material Adaptation is a compromise ! 2. Cultural Evolutionary Process Culture as the instrument of adaptation Somatic to extrasomatic energy use  New energy source/ tools New organization of social relations Human Adaptation As an End Product 1. Developmental adjustments - biological adjustments to extreme & constant forms of stress - with irreversible anatomical or physiological changes 2. Regulatory Adjustments response w/c occurs very rapidly as the stress is felt 3. Acclimatory Adjustments biological responses which requires changes in structure General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Hans Selye (1976) The body’s response to different stressors show some similarities  st 1 stage: Alarm Reaction Stage (Fight or Flight response) nd 2 stage: Adaptation or Resistance Stage rd 3 Stage: Exhaustion Stage Interaction Process INTERACTION PROCESS: The translation of environmental stimuli into humanized meanings ▪ Ability to transform resources ▪ Social system  Aspects Involved in Human - Environment Interactions 1. Nature of the Interaction Biophysical - material & energy flow Social - information flow & language 2. Level of Awareness Voluntary – deliberate efforts Involuntary - unconscious & automatic Roles of Interacting Components Proactive Role- deliberate & exploitative Reactive role- preservation of life Impact of Interaction on the Components Favorable to one but unfavorable to another (Predation, Parasitism, Cannibalism)  Favorable to both components (Cooperation, Mutualism)  Unfavorable to both components Human Environment Interaction is not a mutually exclusive event/ process.  Levels of Human- Environment Interaction 1. Individual-Environment Interaction Individual-Individual Prenatal Development  Individual-Biophysical 2. Family-Environment Interaction Family-Biophysical  Family- Social Systems 3. Human Population/Community (HP/C)- Environment Interaction HP/C- HP/C Agri-Coop  HP/C- Non-Human Living Population  HP/C- Biophysical Env’t  HP/C- Natural Environmental Hazards Cultural Adaptation …the very mechanism by w/c individuals, families and communities are able to interact with their env’t to meet their needs/wants toward Human Well-being. The Seven Environmental Principles* 1. Everything is connected to everything else. (Ang lahat ng bagay ay magkakaugnay.) The intricate relationships of various elements of the ecosystem bind the components together into one functional unit. The trees in the forest are home to ferns, orchids, birds, insects and mammals. When these plants and animals die, their products of decomposition contribute to soil fertility. Plants provide oxygen to animals for aerobic respiration while animals furnish carbon dioxide to plants for photosynthesis. The quality of the soil determines the type of vegetation that exists while vegetation contributes to the minerals of the soil when they die. The living component of the ecosystem affects and is affected by the abiotic components, such as air, temperature, land. Inter-specific relationships create a dependency with each other so that they both have to co-exist to live. All these relationships provide dependencies, check and balances that compose the details of our life-support systems. Human interaction with nature oftentimes alters the ecosystems. The waste we improperly dispose of brings about the deterioration of land and water quality. This may in turn reduce their capacity to provide life for other organisms. Deforestation causes soil erosion and the earth deposited on the water bodies covers the coral reefs resulting to fishery loss. Suspended particulates from vehicular and stationary sources may cause lung problems among city residents. War causes destruction of wildlife and habitats. There is a cause and effect chain, even when it is neither always visible nor observable. Global economic systems affect the distribution of biological goods worldwide. Through the Galleon trade, spices reached different parts of the world. Today, oranges and apples from China have become easily accessible to the Filipino market. Developing countries argue that globalization promotes the introduction of species detrimental to the recipient habitat and market. 2. All forms of life are important.(Ang lahat na may buhay ay mahalaga.) All living organisms were created for a purpose in relation to humans, other species on earth and global ecosystem in general. Thus, when a species becomes extinct, it is like removing a piece of a jigsaw puzzle from the web of life. The variety of life forms, manifested by the different levels of biological diversity – community, species and genes – contributes to the stability of the environment. Food webs, food chains and ecological relationships link plants and animals together in the web of life. Even bacteria, insects, snakes and rats have ecological functions even though humans perceive them as parasites or pests. The Philippines ranks high among the biodiversity hotspots – the richest but the most threatened of terrestrial ecosystems in the world. The Philippines has rich flora and fauna: an estimated 13,500 plant species, 80 amphibians, 240 reptiles, 556 birds, 174 mammals, 300 corals, 27 mangrove species. Of these, approximately 75% are endemic. Some of the threatened species are the Philippine eagle (Pythecophaga jefferyi), Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis), and Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis). The composition of biological diversity naturally changes slowly but the rate of transition has become faster due to factors such as habitat destruction. Deforestation may diminish forest species such as birds that are vulnerable to modification of their home. Pollution of waters reduces the quantity of fishes, shells, algae and other aquatic life. Over harvesting of natural products likewise contributes to the unsustainable use of food and material resources.  To maintain ecological balance, therefore, the conservation of genes, species and ecosystems becomes essential to keep life together. Biodiversity conservation strategies commence with the protection of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Land uses, such as protected areas, ensure that the natural state of these habitats continue to exist in designated areas. Community-based approaches in conservation maximize citizens’ participation in protected areas. Integrity of natural ecosystems can likewise be guarded through the preservation of indigenous species. Strategies outside of the protected areas can be adopted. Cities and human settlements can still keep trees, patches of forests and garden as home for wildlife like birds, butterflies, and insects. Agricultural ecosystems sustain the variety of plants and animals through inter-cropping, multi-cropping and crop rotation. Plant and animal breeding can increase the population of commercially important species without directly harvesting from the wild. The captive breeding of Pag-asa, the Philippine eagle, provided a solution to the diminishing eagle population. Although it is still recommended that habitat protection must be the first step to species protection. 3. Everything must go somewhere. (Ang lahat ng bagay ay may patutunguhan.) By-products of consumption go back to the environment. Everything that we throw away – pieces of paper, left-over food, peelings of fruits, plastic wrappers, used containers – have to go somewhere. Even plants and animals have their own wastes – feces, urine, dead leaves and branches. It is the law of nature that the by-products of metabolism return to the soil, acted upon first by worms, bacteria and fungi, and then converted into minerals, to be again absorbed by plants and eaten by animals. In short, they enter into a material cycle that is an integral part of the ecosystem. But what happens if what we throw is an artificial product such as plastic? Then natural bacteria can not recognize them and may not be capable of breaking them apart. These non-biodegradable products must enter another material cycle – the one that goes to the factory to be manufactured into a new product. Thus the retrieval, collection and recycling of these materials become necessary so that they do not pollute land and water habitats. In our present consumer-oriented, setting up an ecological solid waste management system becomes necessary for maximizing the use of resources. Ecological solid waste management recommends that solid wastes be reduced, segregated, re-used and recycled. Biodegradable materials are either to be eaten again or composted. Non-biodegradable materials have to be segregated and collected for recycling. Industries have their own responsibility in reducing their effluents. End-of-the-pipeline technologies are augmented by clean technologies in raw product extraction and manufacturing. The “polluters pay” principle adopted by governments intensifies the campaign for clean land, water and air. Waste exchange programs by industry turn wastes of one industry into raw products of another. In that way, habitats for organisms are not destroyed or deteriorate. 4. Ours is a finite earth. (Ang kalikasan ay may hangganan.) Everything that we need is provided by nature in abundance – food, water, energy, minerals and air. However, some resources that we depend upon nowadays are extracted excessively but are slow to replace. These non-renewable resources experience limits of supply. For instance, fossil fuels produced over thousands of years may be exhausted in a hundred years. Some energy sources like water, and wood may be replaced easier but have become inaccessible due to pollution and excessive extraction. Diminishing forest cover have resulted from logging, ineffective reforestation and continued land conversion. However, food scarcity and poverty may have resulted from failed distribution systems rather than inability of the land and water bodies to yield food. It can be argued that increasing population decreases the amount of resources available to each person. Carrying capacity, or the ability of the ecosystem to support a number of people, may be influenced by limit of resources due to an increasing population. Competition increases as the carrying capacity is reached. Per capita consumption must also be taken into account because people in Northern countries generally consume more food, energy and resources than people in the developing Southern countries. Carrying capacity may be addressed two ways: increase resources and reduce population growth. Agricultural productivity for instance may be increased with better availability of water and farm inputs. Pollution reduces the absorbing capacity of air and water. Pollution likewise reduces the availability of land and water to produce food for human consumption. A river classified a Class IV means that it becomes fit only for only for navigation and can no longer sustain life forms. Likewise, oil spills from accidents or war destroy bays and rivers. Waterways that have become cesspool of domestic wastes cannot contain fishes and shells or if they do might transmit toxins and harmful bacteria to consumers. Several solutions have been suggested to solve this problem: reduction of consumption, increased use of renewable energy, emissions trading, and pollution control. The conservation ethic and technological solutions have become viable strategies to address finiteness of resources. Biodiversity conservation is anchored on the principle that lost species are irreplaceable. Thus, extinct species have acquired a greater value – more effort has to be exerted to protect and save endangered species. The conservation ethic supports the belief that we should tread lightly on the earth by using only what we need. The philosophy of “sapat”, meaning “enough” suggests that we should buy and consume only what we need and leave some for the less privileged and the next generation. 5. Nature knows best. (Ang kalikasan ang mas nakakaalam.) Nature manifests certain processes that enable it to maintain balance and remain in a state of equilibrium. The nutrient cycling of nitrogen, carbon, sulfur and phosphorous in the air, water and land indicates that minerals are utilized within the confines of the earth. The flow of energy from the sun enables light to be converted into sugar in plants through photosynthesis, and later for consumer organisms to obtain energy from plant starch. Food chains and food webs allow transfer of energy from producers and consumers and provide the means for all living organisms to acquire nutrition. Population control also occurs naturally through predator – prey relationships. The equilibrium in the ecosystem is maintained, thus if humans intervene, unforeseen negative impacts known as ecological backlash, may arise. Floods are often times backlashes of excessive felling of trees. The importation of golden kuhol, that became a pest, reminds us that biological organisms may not acclimatize in a new environment or may cause harm to indigenous species. The environmental ethics promote that we conform to ecological principles and stay close to natural products and processes. We should patronize natural food and consumable materials. Organically grown vegetables provide healthy food without the side effects that may arise from pesticides. Ecological technology offers an option for us to choose, that which is closest to nature. The extent to which Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) affect health remains debatable and the formidable task of providing adequate safe food for a growing population continues to challenge agricultural scientists and environmental managers worldwide. 6. Nature is beautiful and we are stewards of God’s creation. (Ang kalikasan ay maganda at tayo ang tagapangasiwa ng lahat na nilikha ng Diyos.) Creation presupposes the existence of a Creator. The beautiful nature around us, perfect by itself, has deteriorated due to the negative impacts of human use. This principle suggests how a Human-Creator relationship is translated in our attitude towards creation. Theologians explain that there are different levels of this relationship. First is a relationship determined by dominion of humans over creation, that humans can do as they wish because this was given by God. The book of Genesis says “have dominion over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air…” The second level is one of stewardship, that of a caretaker where humans are not owners but guardians of the integrity of nature. The third level promotes a kinship relationship postulated by St. Francis de Assisi in the famous verse “Bother sun, Sister moon”, where humans are no higher than the birds and fishes of the sea. Fourth is one of sacrament, where nature becomes a testimony of God’s love. Fifth is a covenant relationship, where protection of the earth is a life mission manifested in the things that we do and say. Different religions from Islam to Buddhism to Judeo-Christian to indigenous people’s animism express the belief of caring for the earth, including all creatures. Thus it is the goal of environmental education and biodiversity conservation education to motivate target audiences towards developing an eco-spirituality that moves them into a more meaningful relationship with nature and a greater participation in the biophysical economic processes that make this world a better place to live in. 7. Everything changes. (Ang lahat ay nagbabago.) Changes in the biophysical world occur naturally. As they say, there is nothing more permanent in this world than change. Consider the following examples. Metamorphosis of caterpillars to butterflies illustrates morphological changes that occur in living forms. The increase of vegetation on earth augmented the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere through time. Seasons are cyclic changes that contribute to the diversity of flowers, fruits, vegetables and other crops during the year. Random changes manifested by natural catastrophe such as typhoons destroy forests, coral reefs and mangroves. Volcanic eruptions annihilate surface flora and submerge rivers. Human-induced alteration such as climate change may cause more massive repercussions. Land use change – from forests to agricultural land to human settlements – change the composition of vegetation and animals. Human-induced changes can be managed so that the negative impacts are minimized and positive changes accentuated. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) provides a tool for the projection, planning and management of change brought about by industrialization and human settlement expansion. Effluents can be managed through policy and pollution control techniques by both industry and government to achieve clean air and water. Sustainable development presents a paradigm of change for the 21st Century. Sustainable development promotes ecological integrity, equitable sharing of resources and people empowerment as pillars of growth. Biodiversity conservation contributes to ecological integrity, through both in-situ and ex-situ techniques. Biodiversity conservation becomes successful only if coupled with poverty alleviation, improving equity of access to resources and instituting social change. Environmental education facilitates social transformation by modifying attitudes and behavior of people towards an ecological ethic. *Adapted from Barry Commoner, as compiled by Miriam College. Society for the Conserv ation of Philippine Wetlands. Inc. Environment …“immediate surroundings of an individual” …”is a complex system that deals with a network of living and non-living entities” Includes: Physical Components (air, water, land, energy) Biological Components (plants, animals) Socio-Economic Components (people, communities, institutions, values)  The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) I. Everything is connected to everything else. Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of nature is the interaction of the community (living components) and the non-living environment The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner)  Philippine Ecosystem The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) Forest Ecosystems Is a community of trees, shrubs, herbs, microorganisms and animals, the trees being the most obvious living structure Marginal Lands/Uplands Public lands that are hilly to mountainous and greater than 18% slope, including the table land and plateaus lying at elevations which are not normally suited to wet rice unless some form of terracing and ground water exists Protected Areas Areas of remarkable and outstanding features considered as biologically important and are habitats or rare and endangered species.  Philippine Ecosystem The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) Freshwater and Wetlands Areas of marsh, fen, peatland, or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish, or salt, including areas of marine water, the depth does not exceed six meters. Lowland/Agricultural Ecosystems Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Home to 59% of the country’s total population (70% of total municipalities and most of the country’s major cities are located here) Urban Ecosystems  The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) II. All forms of life are important (thus, the need for biodiversity)  All organisms have a role in the ecosystem (niche) The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner)  Biological Diversity or Biodiversity The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) …”is the variety of all life forms on Earth – plants, animals, microorganisms…” Ecosystems diversity - interdependence within species Species diversity – basic unit of biological classification Genetic Diversity – variation within species http://www.regentsprep.org/regents/biology/units/ecology/biodiversitycomparison. gif  The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) III. Everything must go somewhere (thus, too much can cause pollution)  Waste Management  Environmental Management Systems  The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) IV. Ours is a finite earth (thus, the need for conservation)  Trends in Paradigm Preservation Conservation Sustainable (no touch) (Wise Use) Development The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner)  Sustainable Development The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) …”development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.” Taken from the Brundtland Report “Our Common Future”, 1987.  Natural Resource Management The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) Natural Resources can be classified into:  renewable (forest)  non-renewable (minerals)  Natural Resource Management Approach The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner)  Reforestation, community-based management  Soil and water conservation techniques, e.g. agroforestry  Biodiversity Conservation through PA establishment  Regulation of Wildlife Trade  Ex-situ conservation techniques  Integrated coastal resources management  Environment-friendly aquaculture  Solid Waste Management  Community Organizing/involvement  The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) V. Nature knows best (thus, the need for ecological technology) “Nature must be obeyed first before it can be commanded”  Humans should first understand nature and follow its laws  Humans should not go against natural processes if we want a sustained yield of natural resources  The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) Natural Processes Food Chain Energy Flow Diversity Evolution Ecological succession Ecological control or cybernetics Biogeochemical cycles (e.g. carbon-oxygen cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle)  The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) Disruptions are in the form of:  Illegal logging  Indiscriminate kaingin-making and forest fires  Dynamite and cyanide fishing  Habitat destruction resulting in biodiversity loss Can you think of other disruptions?  The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) VI. Nature is beautiful and we are stewards of God’s creation  Divinity in all forms of life.  Religion is one of the most influential aspects that affect values and environment.  The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) VII. Everything changes. Linear change – evolution of species Cyclical Change – influenced by time such as seasons Random Change – eruption of Mt Pinatubo  SUMMARY The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) 1. Everything is Connected to Everything Else  Ecosystem 2. All forms of life are important  Roles and niches, biodiversity 3. Everything Must Go Somewhere  There is no ‘away’ 4. Ours is a finite Earth  No touch, wise use, sustainable development 5. Nature knows best  Nature must be obeyed first before it can be commanded 6. Nature is Beautiful and We are Stewards of God’s Creation  Religion is one of the most influential aspects that affect values and environment 7. Everything Changes  Linear, cyclical, random 22  The Seven Environmental Principles (Barry Commoner) Workshop  Connect ideas from the game with any of the abovementioned principles  Discuss relevance in everyday life. Why Good People Do Bad Environmental Things Elizabeth R. DeSombre  1 Understanding Environmental Behavior Are you worried about the changing global climate? There’s good reason to be: the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases has nearly doubled since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, and almost every recent month has set new temperature records for the modern era. The predicted effects of this increase in global average temperature—including sea-level rise, shifting disease vectors, increased drought in some places and storms and floods in others—are already happening.1 Maybe you’re concerned about toxic pollution, like heavy metals and other hazardous materials from our increasing global use of electronics. At least forty million tons of electronics waste is discarded every ye