Attachment & Temperament Lecture 7 PDF

SETOH PEIPEI, PH.D. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, PSYCHOLOGY, NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY Attachment Outline Attachment Theory History Individual Differences in attachment Assessment Major Hypotheses Infant Attachment What is an Attachment? Attachment: An emotional connection through time Purpose: Serve...

SETOH PEIPEI, PH.D. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, PSYCHOLOGY, NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY Attachment Outline Attachment Theory History Individual Differences in attachment Assessment Major Hypotheses Infant Attachment What is an Attachment? Attachment: An emotional connection through time Purpose: Serves as a secure base for exploration Serves as a safe haven to retreat to in times of distress History of Attachment Theory Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Importance of early parent-child relationships Drive Reduction (Clark Hull) Early parent-child relationship develops because the parent satisfies the child’s needs History of Attachment Theory Harlow’s reaction to Drive Reduction Theory Empirical test of whether the mother-child relationship develops from satisfied needs Infant Monkeys separated from mother Option of wire “mother” or cloth“mother” History of Attachment Theory Harlow’s reaction to Drive Reduction Theory Results Infant monkeys preferred the cloth “mother” Evidence that the mother-child attachment develops because the mother provides contact comfort History of Attachment Theory Bowlby’s Attachment Theory Origins in clinical work Draws on Psychoanalytic theory Ethology Harlow’s research John Bowlby Bowlby’s Phases of Attachment Preattachment (birth to 6 weeks) Attachment in the making (6 weeks to 6–8 months) Clear-cut attachment (6–8 months to 18 months–2 years) Reciprocal relationships (2+ years) Infants’ Attachment-Related Behaviors n separation anxiety n ¨ don’t want caregiver to leave n stranger anxiety ¨ fear of unfamiliar adults n social referencing ¨ Look to caregiver when unsure greetings ¨ Reaction to caregiver after separation n secure base behavior ¨ Using caregiver as a “base of operations” to explore Individual Differences in Attachment Methodologies Strange Situation Procedure Laboratory Procedure Attachment Q-Set Naturalistic Observation Strange Situation Procedure All infants form some attachment to their caregiver, but relationships differ in their quality. Strange situation: pp. 417-419 Used to assess attachment quality in 1-2-year-olds Series of separations and reunions with mother Stranger is introduced Mary Ainsworth TB p. 202 Quality of attachment Classifications: Secure (65-70% of American infants) Explore freely in caregiver’s presence Often visibly upset when the caregiver leaves Greet caregiver warmly when she returns Can be soothed by caregiver upon return Quality of attachment Classifications: Insecure-Avoidant (15% of American infants) Show little or no distress at separation Avoid contact with caregiver upon return May show more positive behavior with stranger than with caregiver Quality of attachment Classifications: Insecure-Resistant (10% of American infants) REALLY distressed by separation Cannot be soothed by caregiver upon return Mix proximity-seeking and angry behaviors Quality of attachment Classifications: Disorganized/Disoriented (~5% of American infants) Confused/contradictory behaviors Dazed, fearful facial expressions Frozen postures Quality of attachment Cultural variations: Japan: Higher proportion of Resistant babies Never before separated from mom! Much more stressful for them. N. Germany: Higher proportion of Avoidant babies May just be cultural differences in how emotion is expressed Hypotheses of Attachment Theory Universality Hypothesis All infants form an attachment Normativity Hypothesis Most infants form a secure attachment relationship Sensitivity Hypothesis Individ. Diff. due to differences in sensitive parenting Competence Hypothesis Individ. Diff. predict future competence Infants’ models of attachment Johnson, Dweck & Chen (2007) 12- to 16-month olds: 10 securely attached, 11 insecurely attached. http://www.stanford.edu/dept/psychology/cgibin/drupalm/system/files/Evidence%20for%20infants'%20internal %20working%20models%20of%20attachment%20attachment.pdf Infants’ model of attachment Attachment and later development Social functioning and competence Initiate and maintain successful relationships (e.g., stronger friendships) Greater social participation Establish positive self-image (Bohlin et al., 2000; Thompson, 2008) Attachment and later development Emotional understanding and self-regulation Better understanding and regulation of emotions Longitudinal study by Kochanska (2001) → insecurely attached children exhibited more negative emotions (e.g., fear, anger) than securely attached children Conclusions Infants are biologically predisposed to become attached to their parents. Attachment behaviors: Separation anxiety, secure base behavior, fear of strangers Attachment quality varies as a product of both parents and children. Temperament Outline 1. What is temperament? 2. New York longitudinal study of temperament 1. 9 dimensions of temperament 2. Temperament types 3. Goodness of fit 4. Criticisms What is Temperament? What do researchers agree upon about temperament? Individual differences in behavioral functioning Emerge early in life Biologically based Somewhat stable over time New York longitudinal study Thomas & Chess (1986): First major study of temperament 141 participants followed from infancy à adulthood Parents interviewed about children From birth to 18 mos à Every 3 months From 18 mos to 5 years à Every 6 months Every year after that until adulthood TB p. 249 New York longitudinal study 3 major findings 9 dimensions of temperament 4 temperament types “goodness-of-fit” 9 Dimensions of temperament Mood Approach/Withdrawal Adaptability Intensity Rhythm Persistence Threshold Activity Distractibility 9 Dimensions of temperament 1. Mood – Predominant quality of young children Child habitually positive or negative? Positive mood: 5 mos old: Smile and laugh at parents 2 yrs old: Happily plays with parents/siblings 10 yrs old: Gets joy from accomplishments 9 Dimensions of temperament 1. Mood – Predominant quality of young children Child habitually positive or negative? Negative mood: 5 mos old: Fussy during/after eating, cry often 2 yrs old: Cries when mother leaves briefly 10 yrs old: Intense distress when unable to complete homework problems 9 Dimensions of temperament 2. Approach/withdrawal How does the child respond to novelty? Bold children: High on approach, low on withdrawal Enjoy encountering new people/situations Not afraid to take risks Shy children: Low on approach, High on withdrawal Do not like new activities Tentative/frightened by new people/situations 9 Dimensions of temperament 3. Adaptability How does the child respond to changes in daily routine? Adaptive: “Roll with the punches” attitude Infants: Can nap wherever, whenever! Toddlers: Ok with a weekend with Grandma 12 yrs: Readily adapt to secondary school 9 Dimensions of temperament 3. Adaptability How does the child respond to changes in daily routine? Not adaptive: Alarmed by change Infants: Must nap at a specific time/place Toddlers: Distressed by new babysitter 10 yrs: Stressed out by a new teacher/school 9 Dimensions of temperament 4. Intensity How strong are the child’s emotional reactions? Extreme: Exhibit extreme highs and lows Very loud and expressive when excited Can cry for hours when a toy is taken away Mellow: Much more subdued reactions Smile quietly at a pleasant toy/movie Whimper, cry softly when sad 9 Dimensions of temperament 5. Rhythm How regular are the child’s biological cycles? Sleep/wake Feeding Predictable/Regular: Sleep/eat at the same time every day. Tend to eat/sleep same amount. Unpredictable/Irregular: Time/amount of sleep and eating varies from day to day. 9 Dimensions of temperament 6. Persistence How do children respond to challenges? Persistent: Work hard on a challenging puzzle Practice a difficult skill rather than giving up Ask again to get what they want from parents! 9 Dimensions of temperament 6. Persistence How do children respond to challenges? Not persistent: Give up on challenging problems Decide they are just “not good” at things Accept “no” as the final answer from mom! 9 Dimensions of temperament 7. Sensory threshold How sensitive is the child to sensory stimuli? Light Noise Touch/Temperature High threshold: Can sleep through loud parties; ignores commotion in restaurants Low threshold: Notices even soft sounds; irritated by certain fabrics or tags in clothing 9 Dimensions of temperament 8. Activity What proportion of the child’s time is spent active vs. inactive? High activity: Kick, walk, run a lot Need relatively little sleep à Hate bed time! Fidget, can’t sit still in class Play sports 9 Dimensions of temperament 8. Activity What proportion of the child’s time is spent active vs. inactive? Low activity: Infants: Sit still while dressing, eating, sleeping Enjoy more quiet play, reading Sleep more 9 Dimensions of temperament 9. Distractibility How good is the child at focusing on an object/ task? How good are they at ignoring distraction? Not distractible: Infants: Focus on one toy for long periods Toddlers: Difficult to distract from a desired toy! Older child: Can read/study with a TV on 9 Dimensions of temperament 9. Distractibility How good is the child at focusing on an object/ task? How good are they at ignoring distraction? Distractible: Infants: Attention is caught by any distracter Toddlers: Stop crying if an activity is mentioned Older child: Need silence for homework Temperament types Easy (40%): Positive mood Regular/rhythmic in body functions Adaptable Mild to moderate intensity Temperament types Difficult (10%): Negative mood Active Irregular sleep cycles/bodily functions Not adaptive Withdraw from novelty Intense emotional reactions Temperament types Slow-to-warm-up (15%): “Shy” children Withdraw from novelty Slow to adapt Reactions mild to moderate Low in activity Temperament types Average (35%) Don’t fall into any of the other categories May not be particularly high/low on an dimensions Temperament types Thomas & Chess (1986): Temperament highly consistent between infancy and adulthood Temperament predicts other outcomes: “Easy” à positive outcomes “Difficult” à Most at risk for negative outcomes “Shy” à Moderate risk Temperament over time Where do these effects come from? Nature: Kids are born a particular way. If they are difficult, they are going to do badly. Thomas & Chess: Really an interaction of nature and the environment à Parents have an effect Temperament over time Where do these effects come from? “Goodness of fit” between child and parent If parents work with children à Positive If parents work against children à Negative Examples: Difficult children need consistent parenting Distractible children do better if they sit at the front of the room Temperament & Parenting Child temperament also influences how parents behave with their children! Examples: Easy children à Parents feel more effective (Eisenberg et al., 2008) Difficult children à Parents feel less effective, may become more punitive (Eisenberg et al., 1999; Kiff et al., 2011) Criticisms of Thomas and Chess (1986) Possible “Halo” effects: Same interviewer talked to parents each time Interviewers knowledge of the child may have colored their questions, interpretation of the parents’ responses All data from parental report: Social desirability bias Negativity bias Modern measurement techniques Interviews video-taped and coded by naïve RAs Parental reports more refined: Old: How much does baby cry? “A lot” New: How many times per day? “5” Supplemented by other methods: Laboratory procedures that elicit behavior Heart rate Cortisol levels EEG