Lecture 6 Emotion PDF

Emotion HPCS4004 Foundation Psychology  Affect Experience of feelings – 3 types: emotions, moods & arousals Emotions vs Arousals – Arousals: physiological response to stimuli E.g., increased heart rate/breathing rate when facing danger...

Emotion HPCS4004 Foundation Psychology  Affect Experience of feelings – 3 types: emotions, moods & arousals Emotions vs Arousals – Arousals: physiological response to stimuli E.g., increased heart rate/breathing rate when facing danger 2  Affect Emotions vs Moods Emotions Moods Focused Less focused & more diffused/pervasive Relatively clear causes Causes less clear (specific responses to specific events) (a weaker connection between moods and triggering events) Short-lived Last for several days (pervasiveness) Intense Less intense – Examples: Feeling surprised (emotion) by an unexpected prize (clear cause) Feeling blue (mood) when you get up In a good or bad mood without knowing exactly why 3  3 components – Subjective experience – Physiological response – Behavioral / expressive response Functions of emotions – A source of motivation e.g. Happiness motivates a person to engage in certain behaviors – Role in decision making Goal setting, purposeful & rational behavior e.g. You decide to buy an iPhone rather than an Android phone because you like it better 4  4 Major Perspectives 1) Darwinian / Evolutionary – Evolutionary / survival-related 2) Physiological – Importance of the role of physiological arousals 3) Cognitive – Importance of cognition / thinking in the generation of emotions 4) Social Constructivist – Emotions as a cultural product 5 1. Darwinian / Evolutionary Perspective Emotions serve survival values – Especially during ages when humans were hunter-gatherers – e.g. fear at the sight of a predator – e.g. disgust by rotten food – protection against toxin Paul Ekman’s studies on facial expressions – Several emotional expressions shared by people in different cultures – Those emotions are universal (i.e. not culture-specific); possibly originated from the same source – They are evolutionary 6  Ekman’s list of basic emotions Anger Disgust Fear Happiness Sadness Surprise 7  Further evidence of the evolutionary source of emotions – Blind people have similar emotional expressions i.e. they do not acquire it by imitating others – We can distinguish very subtle differences in emotional expressions easily e.g. which smile is fake? Which one is genuine? 8  However – Sometimes emotional expressions are also governed by display rules – People learn to socialise within their culture – & appraise/evaluate the environment/context accordingly – e.g. Japanese are more reserved in emotional expressions They find overt expressions impolite Think about how people behave in public transportation systems – e.g. Most people in developed countries are disgusted by worms Some tribes of Africans eat worms in their meals Worms actually increase their appetite 9  N. H. Frijda – The Law of Emotion Emotions are action tendencies or states of action readiness that prepare an individual to respond to significant events in their environment – Action readiness: preparedness that arises from emotional experiences i.e., every emotion is linked to a specific motivational state that primes the body and mind for certain types of actions in response to events → Emotions are seen as adaptive responses that mobilise the individual for action – To go at it or away from it, or to shift attention 10 N. H. Frijda – The Law of Emotion – Emotions trigger specific readiness states that either facilitate or inhibit action Fear triggers a readiness to flee or avoid Anger triggers a readiness to fight or confront Joy triggers a readiness to approach or engage Sadness might lead to a withdrawal or conservation of energy – While emotions prepare individuals for specific actions, action readiness is flexible and context-dependent E.g., anger might prepare someone to fight, the actual action taken might vary depending on the situation 11 N. H. Frijda – The Law of Emotion – Action readiness can be expressed physically or mentally: – Physical action readiness: Emotions often prepare the body for action (e.g., increased heart rate or muscle tension) For example, fear may prepare the body to flee, leading to physiological changes like a rapid heartbeat or heightened alertness. – Mental action readiness: Emotions also prepare the mind for specific cognitive tasks, such as focusing attention on the threat or making decisions about how to respond E.g., In a state of anxiety, for instance, the mind might become more alert to potential dangers in the environment. 12  2. Physiological Perspective A. James—Lange Theory – Perceiving a stimulus causes autonomic arousal and other bodily actions that lead to the experience of a specific emotion – Concerns the experiences of emotions rather than expressions 13  2. Physiological Perspective A. James—Lange Theory – Emotion-eliciting stimuli bring about bodily changes We experience these bodily changes as emotions Stimulus Bodily changes Emotion – Both visceral (i.e. physiological, associated with internal organs, therefore Autonomic Nervous System; refer to our lecture on biological psychology), & – behavioural changes 14 – Evidence? PET (Positron Emission Tomography) reveals activity at the somato-sensory cortex (refer to Bio Psy lecture) during emotional experiences These activities are recorded before participants report feelings – Implication: emotions can be reproduced If you engage in certain postures or behaviours associated with certain emotions, the corresponding emotions will be experienced – Carl Lange: these bodily changes involve variations in blood circulation 15  Facial feedback hypothesis – Facial muscles send signals to the brain, and these signals help the brain recognise the emotion that one is experiencing – e.g. When reading comics, people rate it as funnier when holding a pen in their mouth You are forced to maintain a “smiling face” when holding a pen in your mouth You “feel” funny because you are “smiling” You know that you are reading comics You think you smile because the comics are funny – Facial muscles send signals (i.e. feedback) to the somato-sensory cortex 16  2. Physiological Perspective B. Cannon-Bard theory – Attempted to revise James-Lange theory – Physiological changes associated with emotions are not distinguishable by the person e.g. increased heartbeat: fear or excitement? – Autonomic Nervous System responses are typically too slow to be the source of split-second elicited emotions – So physiological changes may not be so important to the generation of emotions 17  B. Cannon-Bard theory – Instead, physiological responses occur simultaneously with emotional experiences – → Emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex (creating the conscious experience of emotion) and to the autonomic nervous system (creating visceral arousal) 18  Bodily changes Stimulus Emotion – e.g. when you face very challenging problems, you sweat (physiological) and feel nervous (emotional experience) simultaneously – Physiological responses may only add extra experiences to the emotions e.g. you understand better that nervous feelings are often accompanied by sweating 19  3. Cognitive Perspective A. Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory – Role of physiological arousals Are essential to emotional experience Motivate people to seek explanations of the arousal – However Physiological responses lack specificity But there are a variety of emotions Physiological responses alone cannot account for all emotions 20  3. Cognitive Perspective A. Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory – The experience of emotion depends on two factors: (1) autonomic arousal and (2) cognitive interpretation of that arousal – When we experience physiological arousal, we engage in a cognitive process to identify the most appropriate emotion based on environmental cues / context / past experiences My heart is racing > I seek the reasons > I understand that I am feeling nervous because a job interview will take place tomorrow – → The subjective experience of emotions depends on how we interpret and label our arousal 21 – Cognition provides extra information to identify emotions Bodily changes Stimulus Emotion Cognition – Since people have to seek explanations for their physiological responses They may find the real causes They may also incorrectly label the arousals according to situational cues – e.g. I want to throw up and feel disgusted while listening to certain news> I think I am disgusted by the news – In fact, my disgust may be induced by my bodily conditions 22  3. Cognitive Perspective A. Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory – Combination of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal – Similar physiological arousal can lead to different emotional experiences depending on how it is cognitively interpreted – E.g., increased heart rate and sweaty palm The situation is threatening → fear The situation is an opportunity for something positive → excitement 23 24  3. Cognitive Perspective B. Richard Lazarus’ Cognitive Appraisal Theory – “Emotional experience grows out of ongoing transactions with the environment that are evaluated” – Emotions are triggered based on cognitive appraisal, rather than simply as a result of physiological responses or stimuli Cognitive appraisal: the process of assessing and interpreting a situation's significance in relation to one's personal well- being Arousal Appraisal Fear/Heart (Snake) pounding 25  3. Cognitive Perspective B. Richard Lazarus’ Cognitive Appraisal Theory – Emotions are not directly caused by external events but a person’s subjective interpretation and evaluation of those events – Primary appraisal: assessment of an event → negative, positive or irrelevant "Is this situation a threat, challenge, or irrelevant to me?" – Secondary appraisal: evaluation of coping resources and options "Do I have the resources or options to deal with this situation?" 26  3. Cognitive Perspective B. Richard Lazarus’ Cognitive Appraisal Theory – The same event may elicit different cognitive appraisals/processes, leading to different emotions Such differences in cognitive appraisals reflect differences in individuals’ goals & motives – e.g. I achieve a high score in an assessment (event) if I consider academic achievements highly important (goal) > I appraise the event as highly desirable (appraisal) > I feel very happy (emotion) // if I don’t want to appear outstanding (goal) > I appraise the event as troubling (appraisal) > I feel worried (emotion) 27  4. Social Constructivist Perspective Emotions are not purely biological or universal responses but are instead shaped by cultural, social, and interpersonal factors i.e., emotions are constructed through social interactions, cultural norms, and language – (1) Different cultures have different rules for how emotions should be expressed In some cultures, anger may be viewed as a legitimate emotion to express publicly, while in others, it may be discouraged – (2) Emotions are partly learnt through social interactions We are taught how to feel and behave in certain situations based on the social and cultural context 28 4. Social Constructivist Perspective – (3) Role of language The way people talk about emotions helps to shape how they experience and interpret them Emotion words differ across languages and cultures, and some languages have words for emotions that don’t have direct translations in others → influence how those emotions are felt and understood E.g., 惆悵、委屈 – (4) Social roles People express emotions based on their roles in society. E.g., someone in a leadership role might learn to hide fear to maintain authority 29  4. Social Constructivist Perspective J. Averill: – (1) Emotions are socially constructed We learn how to feel and express emotions based on what our society teaches us Example: Achievement at work (stimulus) 1) In American culture: you are encouraged to feel proud & confident at the time when you are praised (emotions); you should share the joy with your colleagues (actions) 2) In Japanese culture: you should feel modest & thankful when you are praised (emotions), you should not share the news with everyone in order not to embarrass others (actions) – Violating these emotional rules is considered challenging social norms & ideologies 30  4. Social Constructivist Perspective J. Averill: – (2) Emotions serve transitory (i.e. temporary) social roles Emotions are tied to the role we play Depending on the situation, we express emotions that fit the role we are expected to take E.g., A teacher might need to stay calm and composed when dealing with difficult students, even if they feel frustrated, because that’s part of their professional role – (3) Emotions follow social rules The social rules tell us how to act in certain situations These rules vary depending on the culture E.g., Feeling angry at work but knowing the social rule is to stay calm and not yell at colleagues, so you suppress your anger 31  4. Social Constructivist Perspective J. Averill: – (4) Emotions serve social functions Emotions help us maintain social relationships and order → help us communicate how we feel and respond to others appropriately E.g., Guilt helps maintain social harmony because when someone feels guilty for doing something wrong, it encourages them to apologize and make things right – (5) Emotions vary across cultures Different cultures have different emotional expressions and expectations: What’s considered an appropriate emotion in one culture might be seen as strange in another E.g., In some cultures, smiling a lot is a sign of politeness and friendliness, while in others, smiling too much can be seen as insincere 32 4. Social Constructivist Perspective 2 classes of emotions – (1) Basic emotions (“naturally occurring”) Universal facial expressions and physiological responses E.g., fear, joy, sadness, fear & anger In animals, these emotions are rooted in instinctive tendencies In humans, however, how these emotions are interpreted, expressed, and regulated is influenced by social and cultural factors E.g., fear might be a universal emotion, how it is expressed (e.g., openly or suppressed) can vary depending on cultural norms → emotions lose their natural, spontaneous basis in human adults and become mediated by social consciousness 33 4. Social Constructivist Perspective 2 classes of emotions – (2) Socially constructed emotions (“Non-naturally occurring” ) These emotions are seen as heavily influenced by culture, social norms, and interpersonal relationships Are developed through social learning and are shaped by the expectations and practices of specific cultures Examples: – Guilt and shame, which are influenced by social norms regarding behaviour and moral expectations – Jealousy or envy, which can be shaped by cultural values related to relationships and social comparison – Pride or humility, which depend on cultural standards of achievement or behaviour 34  Which Perspective? Darwinian, physiological, cognitive or social constructivist? Each is good for explaining certain aspects of emotions, e.g. – Darwinian - primitive emotions, survival values, expressions – Physiological - bodily responses – Cognitive - complex emotions, thinking, causes – Social constructivist - cultural influences, expression rules An eclectic approach - using all that is/are applicable 35 Reflections Is it really useful to comfort people with words like – “Don’t be sad” – “Try to think less” – “It is useless to feel sad” How do we deal with our own emotions? – Should we avoid negative emotions at all costs? – What implications do emotions bear? How do we evaluate emotions, considering the influences of society & culture? 36