Leadership and Motivation PDF

PERSONAL ITY DEVELOPM ENT ALVIN GRAGASIN VIÑEGAS, LPT PERSONALITY Personality refers to all the traits that make a person uniquely themself. It encompasses features of their distinctive character such as temperament, disposition, interests, reactions, emotional state,...

PERSONAL ITY DEVELOPM ENT ALVIN GRAGASIN VIÑEGAS, LPT PERSONALITY Personality refers to all the traits that make a person uniquely themself. It encompasses features of their distinctive character such as temperament, disposition, interests, reactions, emotional state, motivations, and other internal psycho-social factors.  PERSONALITY Personality is generally believed to be part nature (genetic factors) and part nurture (formed through environmental exposure and socialization). It is also considered to be mostly stable over time, although can change in bursts, such as during puberty, a mid-life crisis, or following a major life-shifting event.  PERSONALITY According to the APA dictionary of psychology, personality is defined as: “the enduring configuration of characteristics and behavior that comprises an individual’s unique adjustment to life, including major traits, interests, drives, values, self- concept, abilities, and emotional patterns.”  PERSONALITY EXAMPLES There are many ways in which we might classify personality in psychology. Perhaps the most mainstream is the Big 5 Personality Traits, a taxonomy of 5 categories of personality. These are: extraversion, agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism.  EXTRAVERTED AND INTROVERT One of the primary ways in which we describe a person’s personality is by saying that they are an extravert – someone who’s outgoing – or an introvert – someone who is more of a recluse.  EXTRAVERT Extraversion is a characteristic trait that manifests as: Outgoingness Generating energy from social interaction A need for very regular socialization with large amounts of people  EXTRAVERT Extraverts are usually comfortable in expressing themselves, can quickly form new relationships, and are often perceived as friendly and approachable. For example, an extraverted person may actively seek out and engage in social events or group activities regularly, is comfortable with attention, and typically enjoys being surrounded by people.  INTROVERT Introversion, on the other hand, represents a personality trait characterized by a person who needs to be alone to reflect and think in order to regenerate. External stimuli and excess social interaction is draining to introverts. As a result, introverts often prefer solitary activities or interactions with a small, close-knit group of people, as opposed to large social gatherings.  INTROVERT While introverts may enjoy social interactions, they prefer meaningful and deep conversations over small talk. An example of an introverted person might be someone who prefers reading a book or pursuing a hobby alone rather than attending a large social gathering, often keeps personal thoughts or ideas to themselves, and values a few close relationships over many casual ones.  AGREEABLE AND DISAGREEABLE Agreeableness is a personality trait associated with kindness, warmth, cooperation, and a strong sense of consideration and concern for others.  AGREEABLE AND DISAGREEABLE People who score high in this trait typically value harmony, are easy to get along with, are often willing to compromise, and tend to avoid conflict. They are often perceived as:  Friendly  Empathetic  Approachable  Protective and caring  AGREEABLE AND DISAGREEABLE On the other end of the spectrum, we have disagreeableness, which is typified by:  Lack of concern for others  Skepticism about others’ intentions  Willingness to make self-serving decisions. Disagreeable people can be harsh, unfriendly, and detached in their interactions with others. They tend not to shy away from conflict, often standing their ground and prioritizing self-interest over maintaining harmony.  AGREEABLE AND DISAGREEABLE However, interestingly, being disagreeable has its benefits. For example, disagreeable people are found to often earn more money than agreeable people because they’re willing to negotiate hard for their salary, while agreeable people may back down in the interest of harmony.  AGREEABLE AND DISAGREEABLE Fun Fact: Women tend to be More Agreeable than Men Women tend to score higher on agreeableness than men, on average. This is considered one of the multivariate reasons for the persistent gender pay gap in just about every society around the world. OPEN AND CAUTIOUS A person who is considered to be ‘open’ tends to be receptive to new experiences, ideas, foods, and so forth, that might be initially discomforting or strange. Someone scoring high on ‘openness’ typically displays: Curiosity Creativity Appreciation for art and beauty Inclusiveness These sorts of people are more likely to question norms and are open to change. They are drawn to diverse experiences, tend to think deeply and abstractly, and are intellectually bold. OPEN AND CAUTIOUS On the other end of the spectrum, we might have someone who is cautious and uncomfortable with new experiences and sudden change. The person on the cautious end of the personality spectrum may display the following traits:  They’re more conventional  They stick to routines  They prefer familiarity over unpredictability. This person might deliberate thoroughly before making decisions. They are typically also strict about adhering to rules and established methods. OPEN AND CAUTIOUS An example of a cautious person might be someone who prefers eating the same foods and visiting the same vacation spots, sticks to a regular routine, feels uncomfortable when routines are disrupted, and takes their time in making decisions to avoid risks.  CONSCIENTIOUS AND NEGLECTFUL Another way we can classify people’s personalities using the Big 5 taxonomy is by determining if a person is conscientious or neglectful. A person considered conscientious would display the following traits:  They’re organized  They’re responsibile and dependable  They are persistent  They have strong work ethic.  They are careful in their actions.  CONSCIENTIOUS AND NEGLECTFUL An example of a highly conscientiousness person might be someone who keeps their workspace clean and organized at all times, has clear and well-maintained to-do lists, and makes it a point to meet all the deadlines they have set for their work. They tend to be efficient, thorough, and detail-oriented in their work  CONSCIENTIOUS AND NEGLECTFUL We might describe the opposite of conscientious person as someone who is:  Unorganized  Erratic  Irresponsible  Neglectful or forgetful of their duties. The person on this end of the spectrum might struggle to fulfill tasks on time because they don’t have sufficient planning skills. They might overlook crucial details and fail to set goals.  CONSCIENTIOUS AND NEGLECTFUL  For instance, a careless person might frequently lose their personal belongings (I’m guilty here!). They might also miss appointments because they forgot, or submit work that hasn’t been carefully reviewed and may contain errors.  This general lack of regard for detail can lead to subpar performance and may create challenges in both personal and professional life.  NEUROTIC AND RESILIENT Our last Big 5 personality trait is neuroticism. This trait is characterized by:  Emotional instability  Anxiety  Moodiness  Irritability  Sadness People with high levels of neuroticism often experience mood swings and tend to respond to stressors more negatively. They frequently experience negative emotions and may see ordinary situations as threatening or minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult.  NEUROTIC AND RESILIENT  On the other hand, resilience or emotional stability is exhibited by people who have the capacity to maintain a consistent mood, manage stress effectively, and rarely experience feelings of anxiety or depression.  Resilient individuals are usually calm, even-tempered, and less likely to feel stressed in response to challenging situations.  They also happen to be good at ‘bouncing back’ from negative experiences and can adapt well to change and adversity. 75 PERSONALITY TRAITS Adventurous, Affectionate, Ambitious, Analytical, Artistic, Assertive, Attentive, Caring, Charismatic, Charming, Cheerful, Clever, Compassionate, Confident, Conscientious, Considerate, Cooperative, Courageous, Creative, Curious, Decisive, Dedicated, Dependable, Determined, Diplomatic 75 PERSONALITY TRAITS Disciplined, Easygoing, Empathetic, Energetic, Enthusiastic, Ethical, Extroverted, Fair, Flexible, Focused, Friendly, Funny, Generous, Gentle, Genuine, Gracious, Hardworking, Honest, Humble, Imaginative, Independent, Industrious, Innovative, Insightful, Inspirational 75 PERSONALITY TRAITS Intelligent, Intuitive, Kind, Logical, Loyal, Mature, Methodical, Meticulous, Modest, Motivated, Optimistic, Organized, Passionate, Patient, Perceptive, Persistent, Persuasive, Practical, Proactive, Professional, Punctual, Rational, Realistic, Reflective, Respectful  PERSONALITY A Note on Personalities in Childhood: In early childhood, personality is often seen build on the foundation of temperament. For example, the famous the 1956 New York Longitudinal Study found three temperaments in children: easy, cautious, and difficult.” – Chris Drew, PhD  TRAIT THEORY OF PERSONALIT Y ALVIN GRAGASIN VIÑEGAS, LPT  TRAIT THEORIES  The trait theory of personality is an approach to studying human personality through traits, such as extraversion, agreeableness, honesty, etc.  When somebody asks us about a certain person, then we usually describe them through traits: “She is a little shy” or “he is a perfectionist”. These traits are essentially habitual patterns of behavior, which make us who we are.  Starting from Allport & Odbert, various psychologists have come up with trait theories, some of which we will discuss below.  TRAIT THEORIES Saul Kassin defines a trait as; “A relatively stable predisposition to behave in a certain way”.(Kassin 2022)  The trait theory was first developed by Gordon Allport, who felt that instead of searching for analytical explanations of behavior—as psychoanalysis attempted to do—psychologists must first learn to describe and measure the basic units of personality (Kassin).  So, Allport and Odbert searched through an unabridged English dictionary and compiled a list of 18,000 words that could be used to describe people. They then removed obscure words & synonyms, reducing the list to 4,500 words, which were further grouped into 200 traits.  TRAIT THEORIES For them, these traits were the building blocks of personality, and they were characterized by:  Consistency: Traits are consistent over various situations. For example, if someone is talkative, they will participate more in conversations in all contexts: schools, offices, parties, etc.  Stability: Traits are not simply transient states; instead, they are stable over long periods. So, someone who is a perfectionist as a school student will most likely still be a perfectionist later in their professional life.  Individual Differences: Different individuals have different traits. They may or may not have a certain trait (say desire for fame). Other traits (like introversion vs extraversion) may have a spectrum, with individuals being placed at different points.  APPROACHES TO TRAIT THEORY: ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT Various psychologists have attempted to develop trait theories, some of which include:  ALLPORT & ODBERT  Allport & Odbert developed the first trait theory, and they categorized traits into three levels (1961).  Cardinal traits dominate and shape a person’s behavior, so much so that they seem to become synonymous with the person. These include the need for money, ambition, etc.  In contrast, central traits are less dominating, and they are present in all human beings to different degrees. For example, “honesty” or “intelligence”. Finally, secondary traits are very specific behaviors or preferences that appear in certain contexts, say being impatient while waiting.  RAYMOND CATTELL Cattell reduced the size of Allport’s list to make it more manageable and created a science of personality. He collected people’s ratings of themselves & others, and then put these numbers through factor analysis (a statistical technique that identifies clusters of correlating items). In this way, he found out that personality consists of 16 distinct units, which he called source traits (1978).  RAYMOND CATTELL Cattell believed that every human being has a unique combination of these traits, which is what distinguishes us from others (Kassin). These traits included dominance, perfectionism, self-reliance, etc. Cattell used these findings to create the Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire (16PF), which yields 16 separate scores (one for each factor) and is one of the most widely used personality questionnaires.  THE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL AND EYSENCK  Later researchers further simplified Cattell’s work into the five-factor model, and Eysenck came up with a three-dimension personality model.  With time, factor analysis became more sophisticated, and researchers realized that Cattell’s model could be simplified even further (Kassin). They then came up with the five-factor model of personality because it emerged consistently in studies across ages and countries.  THE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL AND EYSENCK  These traits have been called the Big Five, and they include neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. The five- factor model is also backed by scientists, who have found that genetic variations are responsible for personality traits (Vukasović & Bratko, 2015)  But Hans Eysenck felt that even five factors were too many. So, he created a three-dimension model, which included extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Eysenck also claimed that individual differences are biologically rooted: introverts have central nervous systems that are more sensitive to stimulation and so avoid intense sources of excitement. (1967)  10 TRAIT THEORY EXAMPLES  Extraversion: Although psychologists disagree about specific traits, they all agree that one of the most powerful dimensions is introversion-extraversion, which exists across all age groups & cultures. An extrovert typically has many friends, likes social events, and is uninhibited. In contrast, an introvert has just a few close friends, shies away from stimulation, and acts cautiously (Kassin). Studies by Kagan and others have found that the rudiments of adult introversion/extraversion can even be seen in the predisposition of infants (1994).  Neuroticism: Neuoriticism (sometimes also called emotional instability) refers to the tendency to have strong negative emotions, such as anger or depression. Neurotic people are more vulnerable to stress, and they often perceive ordinary situations to be threatening. They are also likely to be pessimistic about work and think less clearly (Fiske). In contrast, less neurotic individuals are calm and free from persistent negative feelings.  10 TRAIT THEORY EXAMPLES  Psychoticism: Psychoticism is most clearly exhibited in aggressiveness and interpersonal hostility. This was one of the traits identified in Eysenck’s personality model, and it characterizes individuals who are usually anti- social, hostile, and even manipulative. Eysenck believed that higher levels of this trait made a person more vulnerable to psychosis (like schizophrenia) and that it was genetically inherited.  Openness to Experience: People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, appreciate beauty, and enjoy trying new things. They have a greater art appreciation, which makes them more aware of their feelings and more creative. Often, they have unconventional beliefs and may engage in risky behavior.  10 TRAIT THEORY EXAMPLES  Agreeableness: This trait indicates a person’s concern for social harmony: agreeable people like to get along with others. They are trusting, helpful, and usually compromise with others. Agreeable people have good relationships with their team members and also make good transformational leaders.  Conscientiousness: It refers to a desire to perform tasks well and take one’s obligations seriously. Conscientious people are careful, efficient, and organized in doing whatever they do. They are hard-working and reliable, but an extreme version of this trait may turn someone into a “workaholic”.  10 TRAIT THEORY EXAMPLES  Honesty-Humility: Honesty-humility is the tendency to be fair and genuine with others; it is one of the 6 traits of the HEXACO personality model. If you have a high level of this trait, you will avoid manipulating anyone, be unwilling to break rules, and have less concern for social status.  Self-Esteem: How we view ourselves is called self-esteem. It is our sense of our value or worth, describing the extent to which we approve of ourselves. Self-esteem includes both beliefs (like “I am worthy of success”) and emotional states (like pride). Unlike the humanistic theory of personality, trait theory thinks we wither have self-esteem, or we don’t.  10 TRAIT THEORY  EXAMPLES Perfectionism: Perfectionism is a tendency to strive for flawlessness. It can be both external (being deeply concerned with evaluations of others) or internal (being self-motivated to be perfect). Perfectionism can often lead to adjustment problems like anxiety and depression.  Rigidity: Rigidity refers to inflexibility and adherence to fixed patterns. Rigid people find it difficult to change their established habits & attitudes. They often also refuse to appreciate another person’s viewpoint.  TRAIT THEORY STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES  The trait theories of personality help us conceptualize different personalities, but they often find it difficult to explain development changes and situational factors.  Various trait theories help us conceptualize different personalities. These can help us gain an in-depth understanding of a person, which is why employers often use personality tests in hiring. They often also examine one’s social media behavior to learn more about them.  The right kind of personality assessment can greatly help mental health professionals in helping their clients. Moreover, psychology students can use their understanding of human behavior in sales and marketing positions across the business world.  TRAIT THEORY STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES  However, the trait theories also have their weakness. Earlier, while defining traits, we discussed how they are usually stable over time. But over a lifespan, people are bound to have personality changes: you may have been shy in high school and then become more confident afterward.  D.P. McAdams argues that trait theory fails to explain this dynamic nature of personality development. Moreover, critics also accuse trait theorists of focusing solely on personality traits. This makes them ignore the importance of situational factors, which often deeply influence behavior.  TRAIT THEORIES The trait theory of personality tries to understand humans by identifying and measuring traits, such as extraversion, agreeableness, etc. Traits are habitual patterns of behavior, which make us who we are. Studying human traits can help us gain an in-depth understanding of a person, but it is also important to note that people grow over time and that situations also influence our behavior.  FREUD’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY ALVIN GRAGASIN VIÑEGAS, LPT  FREUD’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY  Sigmund Freud developed a theory of personality which postulates that each individual’s personality is comprised of three entities: the id, the ego, and the superego.  Each of these entities can be thought of as psychological energies that operate within the human psyche. Each has its own objectives and ways of being expressed.  An individual’s overt behavior is a result of the three components of personality trying to fulfil their separate roles.  FREUD’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY But what we see on the outside is really just a glimmer of what is happening behind the closed doors of the mind – our covert behavior. According to Freud, the individual is often unaware of how their behavior is determined because the most primitive part of the personality, the id, usually operates outside of conscious awareness.  FREUD’S THREE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY Freud believes the personality is made up of three components: the id, ego, and superego.  THE ID The id is the impulsive and instinctual component that operates on the pleasure principle. The id wants its needs satisfied as soon as possible (aka instant gratification), and is not concerned with consequences or ethics. The id is present from birth onward and exerts its influence on our behavior outside of conscious awareness. See more: Examples of the Id.  THE EGO The ego is the pragmatic component of the personality and operates on the reality principle. The ego helps control the impulses of the id, but at the same time tries to find ways to satisfy those needs based on the constraints of the situation. The ego relies on the delay of gratification to control the id’s impulsive drives until a solution can be achieved.  THE SUPEREGO The superego represents the standards and moral principles of the individual. These standards are internalized over time and come from one’s parents and society. This part of personality emerges around the age of five. It consists of two components: the conscience and the ego ideal. The conscience, part of the superego, contains the rules learned about what is good and bad behavior. When a person does something they know is wrong, the conscience is where the feelings of guilt and shame come from. The ego ideal is what the ego strives to achieve. It represents the best example of what the person should become. The ego ideal can be defined by one’s parents or society.  FREUD’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY According to Freud’s theory of personality, a person’s behavior is a result of the competing influences of the three components of personality. For example, when an individual acts impulsively, it is the result of the id. When an individual acts with restraint and discipline, it is the result of a strong ego and well-formed superego.  HERE’S A COMPARATIVE TABLE OF THE THREE ELEMENTS OF FREUD’S PERSONALITY THEORY: ID, Imposes moral standards Function EGO & SUPEREGO Seeks pleasure Mediates reality and desires on behavior Conscious, Preconscious, Conscious, Preconscious, Operates Unconscious Unconscious Unconscious Principles Pleasure principle Reality principle Morality principle Develops during infancy and Develops around the age Development Present from birth uses strategies such as of five sublimation  ORIGINS OF FREUD’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY THEORY Sigmund Freud developed his theory of personality in the late 19th century. He was heavily influenced by his advisor at the University of Vienna, Ernest von Brücke.  Brücke believed that all living organisms were comprised of finite energy systems. This energy circulates around the various systems within the organism.  Freud postulated the concept of the libido based on this notion. According to Freud, the libido was primarily a sexual energy in the id that is expressed through behavior.  ORIGINS OF FREUD’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY THEORY However, the actions of the libido are often inconsistent with the morals of society represented in the superego. This can lead to neurosis or psychosis if the ego is unable to resolve the conflicting demands of each. Other scholars such as Alfred Adler (2002) and Carl Jung (2014) incorporated aspects of Freud’s thinking into their own theories of human behavior.  THE ROLE OF DEFENSE MECHANISMS IN FREUD’S THEORY Defense mechanisms are strategies that the individual uses to cope with anxiety (Freud, 1894, 1937). When confronted with disturbing thoughts or conflicting information about the self, defense mechanisms kick-in to help restore emotional balance.  They often involve a distortion of reality and operate outside of conscious awareness.  Although some people consider defense mechanisms to be negative and a sign of dysfunction, Freud believed that defense mechanisms serve a valuable purpose.  They reduce anxiety, help the individual cope, and are necessary for healthy human functioning.  Although at one point maligned as incapable of being scientifically tested, today’s perspective on the utility of defense mechanisms is quite different. REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS OF THIS THEORY The most common application of Freud’s theory of personality is in the treatment of psychological disorders. Freud’s version of therapy is referred to as psychoanalysis. It is used today primarily to treat depression and anxiety disorders. REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS OF THIS THEORY  The goal in psychoanalysis is to help the patient become more aware of the recurring dysfunctional thoughts and feelings that prevent them from leading a normal life and being happy.  This is accomplished through a variety of techniques, including: free association, inkblot interpretations, resistance and transference analysis, and the interpretation of dreams.  Psychoanalysis can take time because it seeks long-lasting change that results in altering the structure of the individual’s personality and patterns of reasoning. REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS OF THIS THEORY In a review of the literature, Shedler (2010) states that: “available evidence indicates that effect sizes for psychodynamic psychotherapies are as large as those reported for other treatments that have been actively promoted as “empirically supported” and “evidence based.” (p. 18).  CRITICISMS OF FREUD’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY Freud’s theories, while groundbreaking in the field of psychology, have not escaped critical evaluation.  Lack of Empirical Evidence: One of the primary criticisms levied against his theories of personality concerns lack of empirical evidence. Freud’s concepts such as the id, ego, and superego, while interesting, are largely abstract, meaning that they are hard to measure and therefore to validate scientifically. Scientists like Karl Popper consider Freud’s theories as pseudoscientific for this reason, because they lack falsifiability (Popper, 1959).  CRITICISMS OF FREUD’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY Lack of Consideration of Environmental Context: critics point out Freud’s theory disregards the effects of the environment on personality development. Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory, for example, underscores the importance of observational learning, environmental influence, and self-efficacy in shaping one’s personality, rendering Freud’s focus on childhood conflicts and unconscious urges incomplete (Bandura, 1977). It’s important to note that while Freud’s theory has faced criticism, it undeniably made a profound impact on psychology, sparking conversations that continue to shape the field even today.  CRITICISMS OF FREUD’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY Lack of Real-Life Complexity: The conceptual triad of id, ego, and superego, as proposed by Freud, has also been the subject of criticism. Notably, critics have found fault in the overly simplistic nature of these three entity-like components (Rennison, 2015). They argue that the human psyche is complex and cannot be simply divided into these neat compartments. The tripartite structure is seen as too theoretically convenient, lacking nuance and complexity. Cognitive psychologists, especially, deem Freud’s constructs unhelpful in predicting behavioral outcomes due to their inconsistent definitions and applications across contexts.  FREUD’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY  Freud’s theory of personality involves three structures that exist in the human psyche. Each one has its role in the expression and management of impulses and needs.  While the id represents a person’s instincts and primal urges, the superego represents the internalized standards derived from parental and societal influences. The ego is tasked with fulfilling the ids needs based on the constraints of reality and principles of morality from the superego.  FREUD’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY  When the ego becomes aware of disturbing thoughts and desires that come from the id, it engages in a defense mechanism. By distorting reality in various ways, the anxiety experienced from becoming aware of those desires is resolved.  Freud’s theory of personality has implications for the treatment of psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety. This form of therapy is referred to as psychoanalysis. Although time consuming, research shows that psychoanalysis is effective. HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY ALVIN GRAGASIN VIÑEGAS, LPT  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY The humanistic theory of personality posits that humans have an innate drive toward self-actualization, as long as they are surrounded by the right environment.  It was developed by Carl Rogers, whose work (along with that of Abraham Maslow) helped establish the humanistic school of psychology. Unlike psychoanalysis or behaviorism, the humanistic school tries to take into account the entirety of the human experience.  For example, in clinical therapy, humanistic psychologists give centrality to the client’s experiences and try to provide a positive atmosphere to help them grow. Let us discuss the concept in more detail and then look at some examples.  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY The humanistic theory of personality was developed by Carl Rogers, largely in response to Freud’s personality theory, with which he strongly disagreed. He believed that: “Experience is for me, the highest authority.... Neither the Bible nor the prophets—neither Freud nor research—neither the revelations of God nor man—can take precedence over my own experience”.(Rogers, 1961)  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY During the 1950s and 60s, behaviorism and psychoanalysis were the two most prominent schools of psychology. But the behaviorists used the techniques of natural sciences, which reduced humans to animals or machines. Psychoanalysts, on the other hand, only focused on abnormal people. As such, a new group of psychologists (led by Abraham Maslow) created the humanistic school of psychology, which tried to give a fuller account of humans.  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY Humanistic psychology: “recognizes his [a human’s] status as a person, irreducible to more elementary levels, and his unique worth as a being potentially capable of autonomous judgment and action.”(Kinget, 1975)  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY  For Carl Rogers, the most important thing was to understand how a person viewed the world—their “subjective reality”. This led him to develop his humanistic theory of personality, which argued that all humans are innately driven to pursue their innermost feelings.  However, most people are actually unable to pursue this self- actualization because of the surrounding environment. What people need are relationships that provide “unconditional positive regard”, which helps us become fully functioning humans and reach our potential.  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY EXAMPLES Client-Centered Therapy: One of the biggest contributions of the humanistic theory of personality was its influence on therapy. While Rogers was pursuing his doctorate, most psychologists were trained in the psychoanalytic tradition. But Rogers realized that psychoanalysis had severe limitations, so he created his brand of client-centric therapy, based on the central belief that “the client who knows what hurts, what directions to go, what problems are crucial, what experiences have been deeply buried” (1961). Unlike psychoanalysts, Rogers did not call his disturbed individuals “patients”. Instead, he referred to them as “clients”, made an active attempt to understand their subjective reality, and then provided a positive therapeutic atmosphere.  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY EXAMPLES Q-Technique: While working as a professor of psychology at the University of Chicago, Rogers and his colleagues attempted to create the first method of objectively measuring therapy’s effectiveness. This was the Q-technique (also known as the Q-sort technique), which was originally developed by William Stephenson. Rogers’ method involved having clients describe themselves in the present (real self) and then as they would like to become (ideal self). The two selves are then measured to determine the correlation between them. As the therapy progresses, the correlation between the two would become larger. So, it helps us to measure the effectiveness of therapy at any point during or after it. (Rogers, 1954).  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY EXAMPLES Education: Humanistic psychology believes in seeing every human being as a unique individual, and this idea has played a huge influence on modern education. Rogers saw traditional schools as bureaucratic institutions that were resistant to change. He instead advocated a “student-centric” approach to education, where students would take charge and develop their learning paths. Today, this idea is brought to reality in open classrooms, where the students are self-directed, choosing what and how they should study. The teachers act as facilitators, who provide the right atmosphere and support for individual learning journeys. In the United Kingdom, A.S. Neill founded the Summerhill School, built on many of these humanistic ideas.  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY EXAMPLES Understanding Parenthood & Relationships: Besides professional therapy or education, the humanistic theory of personality can also help us understand and improve our relationships. Like Maslow, Rogers believed that humans have an innate drive toward self-actualization. However, most people do not live according to their innermost feelings because of the childhood need for positive regard. If children are not loved unconditionally, they develop “conditions of worth”, that is, they learn to act in certain ways to be loved, which continues into adulthood. Rogers says that to remedy this, a person needs “unconditional positive regard”—to be loved for what they are—and this helps them become a “fully functioning person”.  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY EXAMPLES Career Guidance: The humanistic theory of personality can help us direct the overall path of our lives. Both Maslow and Rogers believe that humans are naturally driven toward self-actualization. For Rogers, this can happen when we are surrounded by loving people (who provide “unconditional positive regard”) and pursue our innermost feelings. Rogers calls it the “organismic valuing process”, which allows us to live fulfilling lives and reach our full potential. Like existentialism, humanistic psychology tells us to not worry about the conventions imposed upon us by society but to build our values and pursue them.  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY EXAMPLES Gestalt Therapy: Gestalt therapy was developed as a humanistic psychotherapy, and it is built around the idea that people are influenced by their present environment. So, instead of delving too much into past experiences, gestalt therapy focuses on the present moment, and it tries to improve the client’s awareness, freedom, and self-direction. Developed by Fritz Perls, Laura Perls, and Paul Goodman, the therapy tries to use empathy and unconditional acceptance to help an individual achieve personal growth and balance. The goal is to help people accept and trust what they feel.  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY EXAMPLES Abraham Lincoln: Unlike other psychologists of his time, Maslow studied successful people, one of whom was the 16th President of the United States. Maslow found out that individuals like Lincoln were rarely concerned with other people’s judgments of them. Instead, they were focused on one central problem and spent their entire lives trying to solve it. So, successful people are deeply concerned with self-actualization, and the humanistic theory of personality also advocates doing that.  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY EXAMPLES A Bank Robber: Let us now talk about a completely contrasting instance: a criminal. If humanistic psychologists believe that all humans are innately good, then what about a bank robber? The answer is that, while humans have free will (they can act according to their wishes), they are also influenced by their environment. In this case, the surrounding conditions (monetary issues, proximity to other criminals, etc.) are what turn an individual into a criminal.  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY EXAMPLES Working Towards Promotion: In our professional careers, we all try to move upwards or achieve what is known as self-actualization. For example, you might work very hard to get more clients for your company, which would allow you to gain workplace incentives and perhaps eventually a promotion. So, our actions are driven by our desire to reach our full potential, which is what humanistic psychology believes.  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY EXAMPLES Tipping Behavior: The humanistic theory of personality also suggests that we wish to have “congruence” between our “ideal self” and “real self”. Incongruence can lead to mental distress (say anxiety), therefore we try hard to maintain our self-concept. For example, suppose you ate at a restaurant with a friend, and they felt that your tip was not sufficient. You may defend yourself by saying that the tip was in line with the service, which would allow you to maintain your self-concept of generosity & fairness.  HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO PERSONALITY’S STRENGTHS & While theWEAKNESSES humanistic theory of personality provided a way of studying the “whole person”, it is also often criticized for being unscientific.  STRENGTHS  During the 1950s and 60s, humanistic psychology began as a protest against behaviorism. This new group of psychologists argued that behaviorism concentrated on trivial behavior and ignored the emotional processes that make humans unique. (Hergenhahn, 2000).  They also critiqued psychoanalysis, arguing that it focused only on abnormal individuals and emphasized sexual/unconscious motivation; it ignored healthy individuals whose primary motives are personal growth and the improvement of society.  STRENGTHS Furthermore, they highlight the flaws of the trait theory of personality, which tended to think personality traits – such as self-esteem – are innate rather than developed through environmental and social factors. Humanistic psychology provided an alternative way of studying humans, which took into account the “wholeness” of a person, instead of merely looking at certain behaviors or unconscious motivations.  WEAKNESSES  However, humanistic psychology has also been criticized by many scholars. It presents humans in a “positive” light, but this is almost a kind of wishful thinking that is not supported by facts.  Humanistic psychology also rejects traditional science, but then what is supposed to replace it?  If humanistic psychology relies merely on “innermost feelings”, then it stops being psychology and instead becomes philosophy or perhaps even religion. Critics accuse humanistic psychology of taking the discipline back to its prescientific past (Hergenhahn)  Finally, many of the terms that humanistic psychologists use are quite vague. What exactly do we mean when we say things like “innermost feelings” or “actualizing our inherent potential”? These terms/phrases defy clear definition and verification, making them somewhat unreliable.  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY The humanistic theory of personality posits that all humans are driven to pursue their innermost feelings and reach their full potential.  This, however, is dependent on our surrounding environment. Most of us develop “conditions of worth”, which make us act in certain ways to be loved. Rogers’ attempt was to help people find (whether through personal relationships or therapy), “unconditional positive regard”.  This unconditional acceptance allows people to become fully functioning humans and reach their full potential. The humanistic theory of personality has been applied to various fields, such as education, client-centric therapy, etc.  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY The states on Maslow’s hierarchy are:  Physiological Needs – we first desire things that keep us alive, like air and water  Safety and Security Needs – then, we desire things that make us feel safe and secure, like shelter and financial stability  Love and Belonging (Social) Needs – then, we seek out social satisfaction through a sense of belonging to an in-group, a good family life, and finding friends or an intimate partner  Esteem Needs – then, we seek respect from both our community and ourselves (self- esteem).  Self-actualization – lastly, we seek self-actualization, by which Maslow means becoming the best version of ourselves. An example might be the deep satisfaction from raising happy children.  HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY The states on Maslow’s hierarchy are:  Physiological Needs – we first desire things that keep us alive, like air and water  Safety and Security Needs – then, we desire things that make us feel safe and secure, like shelter and financial stability  Love and Belonging (Social) Needs – then, we seek out social satisfaction through a sense of belonging to an in-group, a good family life, and finding friends or an intimate partner  Esteem Needs – then, we seek respect from both our community and ourselves (self- esteem).  Self-actualization – lastly, we seek self-actualization, by which Maslow means becoming the best version of ourselves. An example might be the deep satisfaction from raising happy children. LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION ALVIN GRAGASIN VIÑEGAS, LPT LEADERSHIP STYLE ALVIN GRAGASIN VIÑEGAS, LPT  LEADERSHIP STYLE A leadership style is a manner of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating others. It involves the tone of communication, the level of specificity in instructions, as well as the leader’s underlying assumptions about employees.  LEADERSHIP STYLE  Leadership is a key component of management. Every project, no matter the profession or industry, requires the designation of at least one individual that is responsible for ensuring the project is completed.  Leaders can be found in corporations at all levels of the organizational structure, from CEO to the head of a work team. In small business settings, the leader is the owner or store manager. Sports teams, militaries and law enforcement agencies, all have well-defined leadership structures.  LEADERSHIP STYLE  There are as many types of leadership styles as there are people writing about them. At last count, it would be easy to conclude that there are 20 different leadership styles.  Most experts in the area identify 8 or 9 main styles, but there are also individual authors that have created a unique leadership style based on their own theory and experiences.  There can be many overlapping characteristics among leadership styles. For example, being people-oriented is a component of the participative style, the affiliative style, and the servant leadership style.  Subtle differences exist in each style, and the suitability of one over the other usually depends on the nature of the business and the attributes of the team.  AUTOCRATIC LEADER The autocratic leader is someone that leads with an iron fist. Instructions are given top-down, with no discussion or input from others. Rules are strictly enforced and include punitive action when deadlines are not met or orders not carried out.  AUTOCRATIC LEADER  On the one hand, this leadership style can be very effective when the leader is the only one on a team with the necessary experience. In addition, expectations are clear and task demands easy to understand by members of the team.  On the other hand, autocratic leaders can produce a team that is unmotivated and fearful of making mistakes. This creates a working environment that is unpleasant and lacking innovation or divergent thinking.  LAISSEZ-FAIRE LEADER  This type of leadership style is just the opposite of the autocratic leader. Expectations are vague and instructions are minimal, if provided at all.  This is a very hands-off approach that allows the team to function independently. The leader’s primary objective is to please others and not create friction.  This approach can be useful if the members of the team are highly motivated, responsible, and have a great deal of experience in that particular project domain.  LAISSEZ-FAIRE LEADER  This approach can be useful if the members of the team are highly motivated, responsible, and have a great deal of experience in that particular project domain.  However, if the team does not have these characteristics, then many negative consequences are likely. Project deadlines will go unmet and the quality of output will be quite low. Team members will lose focus and a sense of purpose. Most likely, the project will fail to meet expectations and needs.  VISSONARY LEADER  This is a leadership style that creates a long-term vision for the team. Visionary leaders have a clear image of what success looks like and they can provide the team with focused direction so that all are working towards the same organizational goals.  They are able to inspire others to meet difficult challenges and create a real sense of teamwork. The focus is on the big picture and they rely on their excellent communication skills and emotional intelligence to motivate their team.  On the minus side, sometimes the personality of the visionary leader becomes overwhelming and the focus of attention. The vison can become so encompassing that other opportunities are overlooked. Unfortunately, the leader can become so important to the organization that if they leave the vison goes with them.  TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADER  This is a leadership style necessary if an organization is in need of (or is experiencing) significant internal change.  Perhaps the company is shifting to a new industry or developing a vastly different strategic plan. This situation requires that employees see the value of the new direction and align themselves with it.  For this to happen, the transformational leader needs some of the same attributes as the visionary leader. They must be inspirational and to some extent charismatic. Their personality is usually described as energetic, enthusiastic, and passionate.  TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADER One of the weaknesses of transformational leadership is that it can sometimes be overwhelming. Change is not easy, especially for a large organization with employees that have worked in a specific culture for a long time. The constant push and drive from a transformational leader can be exhausting to some and lead to burnout.  PARTICIPATIVE/ DEMOCRATIC LEADER  The democratic leader is focused on building rapport with the team and helping members feel valued and respected. It is a team-based approach that utilizes the skills of the people on the team to accomplish project goals.  Decisions are often made based on the input from the group and consensus building. This is great for building employee satisfaction and company loyalty. It works very well if the members of the team are experienced and motivated. If they have a professional demeanor and good sense of teamwork, then work processes function smoothly and efficiently.  However, sometimes employees do not get along and conflicts can upend projects. Putting too much responsibility for decision-making in the hands of others can lead to delays and a lack of focus. Decision-making can become too time consuming, unproductive, and lead to conflicts.  SERVANT LEADER  The servant leader internalizes the philosophy of serving the needs of the team and the organization first. Personal objectives are put aside. Priorities of the job are completely focused on objectives external to the self and solely oriented on the greater good of the team and company.  This leadership style can create an amazing work culture. Employees feel valued and respected with high levels of job satisfaction and company loyalty. They can excel in their abilities and reach new career heights.  One of the challenges of the servant leadership style is that it can be exhausting for the leader. It requires a degree of authenticity and sacrifice that can be difficult to maintain over a long period of time. Moreover, it can be perceived as a weakness by some and so the leader’s authority is diminished. This creates numerous other issues regarding project outcomes and team cohesion.  BUREAUCRATIC LEADER  The bureaucratic leadership style takes place in a highly structured organizational framework characterized by a clear chain of command.  Regulations are strictly enforced and employees are expected to follow all work procedures diligently and without question. Communication channels are formal and rigid. Everyone has a clearly defined job role and set of responsibilities.  BUREAUCRATIC LEADER  This leadership style works well in industries that are predictable and stable. Therefore, work procedures are routine, well-defined, and require very little creativity or independent thought.  The disadvantages of this style are that it is outdated in a modern era of intense competition, organic industries and ever-changing market conditions. Because the decision-making chain is so structured, it becomes inefficient and unable to respond to changing external demands in a timely manner. Creativity is stifled and company loyalty can be low.  These characteristics can all result in a loss of competitive edge and missed opportunities.  AFFILIATIVE LEADER This leadership style is primarily focused on developing a harmonious work environment. Leaders are skilled at building teamwork and conflict resolution. Leaders stive to form strong emotional bonds with their team that are caring and nurturing. They allow a great deal of flexibility and encourage creativity. It is a 100% people-focused approach.  AFFILIATIVE LEADER  Employees working under this leadership style have high morale, motivation and job satisfaction. They become devoted to the company. The transparency between managers and employees builds trust and encourages the sharing of ideas.  The weaknesses of affiliative leadership include underperformance and losing sight of organizational goals. Leaders prefer to avoid conflict, which means that mistakes and missed deadlines can be overlooked in the hopes of maintaining a positive work environment. This creates a chain reaction of errors that increase inefficiency and employees can become overdependent on management to solve problems.  PACESETTING LEADER The pacesetting leadership style is very results- oriented. The leader sets challenging goals and high standards. He or she sets the pace by example and leading from the front to serve as a model of performance. Teams are expected to function with little oversight and prioritize the goals of the organization.  PACESETTING LEADER  This style is most effective with highly motivated teams that have proven aptitude in the work domain. The team considers the high standards to be challenging and even invigorating. The pacesetting style is most suitable for demanding projects that need to be completed rapidly and to extremely high standards.  The disadvantages are that pacesetting leaders can turn to micro- management if they perceive those goals will not be met. Additionally, employees can sometimes experience burnout due to the enduring demands of a high-pressure, high-stakes work environment. Declining job satisfaction can also result from observing colleagues being quickly replaced if not meeting expectations.  COACHING LEADER  The coaching leadership style is defined as you might expect. It is characterized by the goal of helping people grow and achieve their long-term aspirations.  The leader strives to help employees build lasting strengths by being committed and devoted to collaboration. Practitioners of the coaching leadership style are excellent communicators and have a high level of emotional intelligence.  COACHING LEADER  This style works best with team members that are willing to accept constructive feedback. Bringing out the best in people can more easily be achieved by those that want to be the best, and also recognize the value of being led by more experienced professionals.  The disadvantages are that this approach takes time and requires a strong commitment of resources. Team members usually need training, which can be time-consuming and costly. Also, it does not work well with strict deadlines and if employees are fearful of feedback. TRANSACTIONAL LEADER  Transactional leaders are very task-oriented and implement a set of rewards and punishments to achieve results. They are less concerned with the well-being of their team or in building a harmonious work environment.  The transactional leader tends to be directive and action-oriented with a view of employees as needing constant supervision and instruction. TRANSACTIONAL LEADER  Transactional leaders are very good at setting goals, clearly defining standards, maintaining productivity, and achieving scheduled performance milestones. These are valuable attributes for projects that are routine and time-sensitive.  However, being so focused on completing tasks and staying on schedule can lead to low creativity and innovation. In today’s environment, this can be a huge disadvantage. Companies must constantly innovate to stay competitive, and discouraging employee input can shackle innovation from within.  ADAPTIVE LEADER  The adaptive leadership style is perfect for dealing with unanticipated circumstances. This style is characterized by being flexible, open to suggestions, and capable of making dramatic shifts in policy or decisions.  Being an agile leader in an organic industry where change can come at any moment, from any side, is a rare ability. Circumstances can be the result of government regulations, shifts in consumer preferences, or surprising technological innovations.  ADAPTIVE LEADER  The biggest disadvantage of the adaptive leadership style for a company is that it is so rare. Most leaders are incapable of handling these kinds of challenges. In addition, stakeholders may be late to see the need for change and therefore be reluctant to get on board.  This can result in adaptive leaders breaking the rules and taking risks without going through the usual chain of command. That can lead to numerous other problems that distract the company from its newly envisioned strategic plan.  SITUATIONAL LEADER  Hersey and Blachard (1969) developed the situational leadership model which postulates that there is no single best leadership style. A good leader should adapt their style to the demands of the situation and people on their team.  Based on that analysis, one of four leadership styles will be implemented: telling, coaching, participating or delegating. Each of these four styles vary in terms of their task or people orientation.  For example, if the task is simple and routine, the leader should use the telling style, which is very directive and less concerned about the team’s feelings. The coaching style should be used when the team lacks skills and is motivated, but needs instruction on how to perform.  SITUATIONAL LEADER The participating style is useful when the team  is competent but may need some confidence building. Delegating is the style best for a motivated and competent team that needs very little direction or supervision. The situational model is similar to the contingency theory of leadership. THE GREAT MAN THEORY When scholars first began studying leadership in the 1800s, most examples were of men. They were great military leaders or in political positions, or both. Society was not as enlightened back then as it is today, so considering just one gender did not seem inappropriate or sexist in the slightest. THE GREAT MAN THEORY  There many common leadership traits that could be easily seen among these great leaders. They were confident, charismatic, decisive, determined, and highly motivated. They were also quite adept at solving problems and taking action quickly and efficiently. They each seemed to possess a great sense of calm and composure. Even when a situation looked on the brink of disaster, they maintained focus and did not panic or show anxiety.  All of these attributes inspired their followers and instilled a great sense of confidence in the leader’s ability to overcome and prevail. Hence, the “great man” theory was born.  LEADERSHIP STYLE The leadership styles also includes: Directing Leader, Paternalistic Leader, Maternalistic Leader, Authoritative Leader, Strategic Leader, Charismatic Leader  LEADERSHIP STYLE  There are a multitude of leaderships styles. Some are suited for companies that need stability and routine because they operate in an industry that has been long-standing and unsusceptible to dramatic change. Other companies require a leadership style that is highly adaptive and can change with the times as external parameters change quickly and with little warning.  Leadership styles vary in their priorities. Some are results-oriented and focused on meeting deadlines. Other styles are more people-oriented and seek to help their team members achieve their fullest potential and dreams.  LEADERSHIP STYLE  Each style has a different effect on employees. Some foster creativity, high job satisfaction, and company loyalty. Whereas others produce employees that lack motivation and feel undervalued and unappreciated. Other leadership styles work well with highly motivated employees that thrive on challenges in high-pressure, high-stakes environments.  Finding a match between leadership style, task parameters, and worker profiles is ideal.  THEORIES OF MOTIVATION ALVIN GRAGASIN VIÑEGAS, LPT  MOTIVATION THEORIES Motivation theories are theories that explain the human drive to action. The major motivation theories are listed in the glossary below.  ABC MODEL OF ATTITUDE Attitude is the spirit with which we approach a situation, a task, or just life in general. Attitudes are acquired through the experiences individuals have in life. The ABC model of attitude proposes that an individual’s attitude is made up of 3 components – affective, behavioral, and cognitive.  Affective component – This component is made up of the feelings we have about an object, situation, place, etc.  Behavioral component – This component is a measure of how our attitude affects our behavior.  Cognitive component – This component comprises an individual’s belief or the knowledge they possess about a situation, person, place, etc. This is in contrast to the affective component which was about feelings, rather than knowledge/beliefs.  ADAMS’ EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION  Adams’ equity theory of motivation states that to be motivated to perform a task, an individual needs two things – fair compensation for their efforts, and the conviction that the compensation is comparable to that being received by their peers for similar work (Adams, 1965).  The theory was proposed by the psychologist J. Stacey Adams in the 1960s in an attempt to formulate a model for the most optimal distribution of resources in an organization.  ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY Alderfer’s ERG theory is a motivation theory that classifies the core needs of an individual into three groups – existence (E), relatedness (R ), and growth (G). It was proposed by the American psychologist Clayton Alderfer (1940-2015). Alderfer built upon the well-known Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, further condensing Maslow’s 9-level hierarchy into 3 groups.  The existence group (E) categorizes all those needs that are fundamental for an individual’s physiological existence.  The relatedness group (R )combines the needs that concern the human need to socialize with, and relate to other human beings.  The growth group (G) categorizes the need for personal, social, and spiritual development.  ARGYRIS’S THEORY OF ADULT  PERSONALITY Argyris’ theory of adult personality states that organizations that treat their employees as mature, adult individuals, and demonstrate this by giving them greater independence and responsibilities perform better than those that don’t.  As proposed by the American business theorist Chris Argyris ( 1923-2013), the theory proposes that organizations that rely too heavily on rules, regulations, and codes of conduct tend to stifle the development of their workers to maturity, by extension, stifling their own growth.  AROUSAL-BIASED COMPETITION THEORY  The universe is infinite whereas the human capacity for perception is not. This means that our senses can only capture and process a fraction of all that we see, hear, feel, and sense around us.  In other words, the world around us is engaged in a competition to capture our attention.  The arousal-biased competition theory states that phenomena that tend to arouse us manage to capture our attention sooner, and retain it for longer.  BEHAVIORISM Behaviorism uses rewards and punishments to control motivation. It is based on the works of B.F. Skinner who trained animals to complete tasks through repetition, reward, and punishment. At the core of behaviorism is the idea that we are motivated by the expectation of external rewards and punishments. If historically we have received rewards for a behavior, we are more likely to do it again. Conversely, previous punishments will deter us from doing a task again.  Examples of positive reinforcements include stickers and treats  Examples of negative reinforcements include removing aversive things (e.g. taking vegetables away from a plate to stop a baby from crying)  Examples of punishments include getting time-out for bad behavior This theory has a distinct weakness: it sees motivation as being controlled by external factors, eliminating thought processes and agency from our understanding of human behavior.  EQUITY THEORY  The equity theory is concerned with the equitable distribution of resources in an organization so as to optimize output. The theory states that when employees are under- compensated or overcompensated, they may feel either demotivated or stressed, impacting output.  Equity Theory posits that individuals are motivated to maintain a fair balance between their inputs (e.g., effort, skill) and outcomes (e.g., salary, recognition) in comparison to others.  EQUITY THEORY  When individuals perceive inequity, it creates a state of tension that motivates them to restore equity, either by adjusting their own inputs and outcomes or by influencing others’ inputs and outcomes.  The theory highlights the social comparisons individuals make, and how perceived fairness in the workplace can significantly affect motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational performance. EXPECTANCY-VALUE THEORY The expectancy-value theory states that the success of  any individual in accomplishing a task is determined by two factors – how confident is the individual in successfully completing the task (expectancy), and how important, enjoyable, or satisfying the individual considers performing the task (value).  The theory was developed in the 1960s by the pioneering American psychologist John William Atkinson (1923-2003).  FIXED VS GROWTH MINDSETS The theory of fixed vs growth mindsets was advanced by the American psychologist Carol Dweck (b. 1946). Dweck proposed that people with growth mindsets lead less stressful lives than those with fixed mindsets:  Fixed mindset is the belief that a person’s abilities and talents are innate. People with fixed mindsets are likely to abandon a task after an initial setback, believing that they are just not “good at it”.  Growth mindset is the belief that abilities and skills can be acquired at any stage of life. People with growth mindsets are likely to view an initial setback as an opportunity to learn and improve.  FLOW THEORY  Flow in psychology is the feeling of being fully immersed in the task in hand leading to greater output, higher energy levels, enhanced creativity, and an increased feeling of satisfaction from performing the task. This state is colloquially known by several other names such as “being in the zone”  Although a phenomenon commonly experienced by almost all individuals, it was defined in its present form by the Hungarian-American psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi in 1975. HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR (MOTIVATION-HYGIENE) Herzberg’s two-factor theoryTHEORY  states that satisfaction and dissatisfaction at work are unipolar phenomena, which is to say that they are not two sides of the same coin (or like two opposite poles of a magnet or electric charge).  Rather, each is rooted in an entirely different set of circumstances unrelated to the other.  The theory was formulated by the American psychologist Frederick Herzberg (1923- 2000) in a study of over 200 workers in the American city of Pittsburgh known for its steel industry, and hence being a central node in the American industrial economy.  Herzberg observed that the factors that the respondents reported as contributing to their job satisfaction had little role to play in job dissatisfaction, and conversely, the factors that contributed to job dissatisfaction had little impact on job satisfaction.  HULL–SPENCE DRIVE THEORY  The Hull-Spence theory, also called the Drive Reduction Theory, states that individual actions are motivated by a psychological or physiological need, and the need to “reduce” or sate the drive.  The theory was propounded by the American psychologists Clark Hull (1884-1952) and Kenneth Spence (1907-1967) in 1943 and is named after them.  The theory has been utilized extensively in studies involving weight reduction, exercise, substance addiction, etc.  INTRINSIC VS. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION Motivation can be of two types – intrinsic and extrinsic.  Intrinsic motivations are the drives that urge us to take actions solely for our benefit or satisfaction. For instance, pursuing a hobby that gives us creative satisfaction (the ‘intrinsic reward‘), or engaging in meditation to find inner peace.  Extrinsic motivation comprises external forces that compel us to act. These can further be of two types – reward or punishment. Reward is when we act in the hope of gaining some form of external benefits, such as money or recognition by others. Punishment is when we act from fear of suffering a punishment, incurring a loss, or facing criticism.  In therapy, counselors use strategies like motivational interviewing questions to help people align their goals and motivations to move toward a more intrinsic motivation orientation.  KELLER’S ARCS MODEL OF MOTIVATION  Keller’s ARCS model of motivation explains the factors that motivate learners to perform better when being instructed. It proposes that there are a number of factors behind learner motivation that can be classified into 4 key clusters – attention (A), relevance (R ), confidence (C ), and satisfaction (S). (Keller, 2012)  The model was proposed by the American psychologist John M. Keller (b. 1938) A study of the ARCS model helps in designing motivational strategies to enhance learning outcomes, and it thus finds prominent application in the field of instructional design.  LEARNED HELPLESSNESS individuals to a state THEORY  The learned helplessness theory states that repeated failure leads of mind where they feel powerless and display a lack of will to control their own actions.  This in turn can be a trigger for conditions such as depression. The theory holds that such lack of will and control are behaviors that are learned by individuals after repeated negative stimuli, rather than being manifestations of an actual state of powerlessness.  The theory was outlined by the influential American psychologist Martin Seligman (b. 1942)  LOCKE’S GOAL-  SETTING THEORY The goal-setting theory states that setting clear, challenging, and deadline-bound goals with a proper feedback mechanism leads to demonstrable improvements towards attaining those goals. The theory was propounded by the American psychologist Edwin A. Locke (b. 1938) in 1968.  Locke believed that the reason most people fail to achieve their goals was that they failed to set specific goals that were challenging, bound by time limits. Setting vaguely defined goals, or goals, or goals that do not push the individual to test their limits was a major reason for poor goal completion rate.  LOCUS OF CONTROL The THEORY locus of control theory is concerned with the degree to which different individuals believe they have control over the consequences of their actions. Some individuals might believe that the events in their lives are controlled by factors external to them, such as socio-economic structural factors, predestination, or a divine will. Others might believe that they solely are responsible for all their actions. In each case, the locus of control is said to be external or internal respectively.  MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a psychological model that arranges in a hierarchy the various human needs that drive us to action:  At the bottom of the hierarchy are placed the most basic, biological needs such as the need for food, shelter, and sexual reproduction.  As one moves up the hierarchy, the needs become more abstract and refined in nature, with the need for self-actualization, spiritual and creative needs located at the top of the hierarchy.  The model was proposed by the influential American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) in 193 and is named after him.  MCCLELLAND’S ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION McClelland’s achievement motivation theoryTHEORY (also called the Three Needs Theory) states that all human action is motivated by three needs – achievement, affiliation, and power.  It further states that these needs are not innate, but result from the socialization and cultural conditioning we acquire from our surroundings.  The theory was propounded by the American psychologist David McClelland (1917-1998) McClelland proposed that in most people either one or more of these needs were dominant.  He further suggested that individuals in leadership positions had a greater need for power than for affiliation (McClelland, 1998).  OPTIMAL FUNCTIONING HYPOTHESIS  A certain amount of stress is required to force any object into action. This applies to human action as well. At the same time, it is common knowledge that too much stress or anxiety can lead to psychological breakdowns.  The optimal functioning hypothesis attempts to delineate the optimum level of state anxiety (anxiety related to a particular event, as opposed to chronic anxiety) under which the output of an individual would be optimal. This is known as the zone of optimal functioning (ZOF)  PROCESSING EFFICIENCY THEORY  The processing efficiency theory holds that worry and anxiety take up significant cognitive resources of an individual, thereby impacting the performance of other tasks.  Cognitive resources have two main components – storage and processing. Worry impacts both, impairing the performance of complex tasks.  The theory further makes a distinction between efficiency and effectiveness. The former is linked to processing, while the latter to the performance of specific tasks. The theory states that worry and anxiety impact efficiency more than effectiveness. (Eysenck & Calvo, 1992)  REINFORCEMEN T THEORY  The reinforcement theory states that the behavioral biases of individuals are reinforced by the consequences of their actions. In other words, rewards or punishments that result from certain actions loop back into individual cognition to reinforce pre-existing beliefs.  For instance, studies on voting patterns in democracies have revealed that most voters have pre-existing opinions of their choice of candidates which is impacted little by campaigning and debates (Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, 1997).  SELF- DETERMINATION THEORY Ryan and Deci explored how our motivations are shaped  by two fundamental human factors: our capacity for intrinsic motivation and our desire for growth. Within this theory, motivations can be placed on a spectrum from non-regulation and external motivation on one end and intrinsic motivation on the other. Along this spectrum, various motivations are placed, such as the motivations for ego, self-satisfaction, and extrinsic rewards.  THAYER’S THEORY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL  AROUSAL The psychologist Robert E. Thayer proposed that the wide spectrum of human moods is a function of a continuum of psychological states that can be broadly classified into two groupings – energy and tension.  Thayer called these activation dimensions, or arousal dimensions, and proposed a relation between the two such that the two states are positively correlated in states when energy expenditure is low, and negatively correlated when energy expenditure is high (Thayer, 1978). So for instance after intense bouts of physical activity (high energy expenditure), a person experiences low energy-vigor and becomes more vulnerable to tension.  THE HAWTHORNE  EFFECT The Hawthorne effect is the commonplace phenomenon of people behaving differently when conscious of being observed by others. The effect is named after the Hawthorne Works electrical factory in Illinois, US, where a study was conducted on the workers between 1924 to 1927 to measure the changes in their productivity in response to the change in the lighting of the work area.  THEORY X AND THEORY Y  Theory X and Theory Y are two theories of workplace motivation that suggest that employee productivity is stifled when they are placed under increased supervision and subjected to rigorous controls and disciplinary measures (theory X).  Conversely, employee productivity increases when they are trusted to make their own decisions, provided a measure of autonomy, and tasked with challenging projects (theory Y).  The names “X” and “Y” are derived from mnemonic codes made by human arms in positions of refusal to work (arms crossed in a sulky, defiant X position), and in a position of celebration ( both arms raised in a gesture of exultation, resembling a Y).  THEORY Z Theory Z refers to a set of motivational theories that build on the theories X and Y of Douglas McGregor as well as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model. One formulation of theory Z by William Ouchi states that firms must provide employees the safety net of guaranteed lifetime employment, and facilities such as healthcare to increase their motivational levels and hence their productivity.  TWO MEMORY SYSTEMS THEORY The two memory systems theory holds that the brain has two ways of processing and storing information. One is an intuitive, unconscious way of processing information, and the second is a more controlled, conscious way guided by reason and logic. The latter can be shaped and influenced through external influences such as education, social and cultural conditioning etc. The former however, is harder to change.  VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY  Vroom’s expectancy theory states that individual behavior is shaped by their expectation of the outcome of an action.  The theory presupposes that in most situations, individuals will choose pleasure over pain, and thus behavior is determined by the expectation of a reward.  The behavioral course from expectancy to reward takes place via a three-step mechanism – putting in effort and improved performance, achieving the desired outcome as a result of performance, and claiming the reward accrues to the favored outcome.  The theory was outlined by the Canadian professor Victor H. Vroom (b. 1932) and is named after him.  THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR The theory of planned behavior believes that behaviors can be predicted by looking at three key factors. The three key factors that are said to predict people’s behaviors are:  Personal attitudes – If we want to predict a person’s future behaviors, we need to look at their personal attitudes. For example, if a person has a positive attitude toward exercising, then they’re more likely to go to the gym.  Subjective norms – If we want to predict a person’s future behavior, we need to look at the social and cultural norms they adhere to. For example, if someone’s culture glorifies and celebrates soccer, then the person may be more likely to play soccer.  Perceived behavioral control – If we want to predict a person’s future behavior, we need to look at how much they believe they can control their own behavior and whether they can achieve change through effort  PROTECTION MOTIVATION THEORY Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) is a psychological framework that explains how people are motivated to react in a self-protective way towards perceived threats. The theory proposes two main components: threat appraisal and coping appraisal.  Threat appraisal refers to an individual’s evaluation of the seriousness and likelihood of a threat, including the severity of potential harm and their vulnerability to it.  Coping appraisal involves the assessment of one’s ability to respond effectively to the threat, taking into consideration the efficacy of the proposed protective behavior and one’s self-efficacy or confidence in performing this behavior. The interaction between these two components determines whether an individual will be motivated to engage in a behavior to protect themselves against a perceived threat.  MOTIVATION THEORIES  Motivation theories attempt to explain how humans are driven to action, and are thus an integral part of the fields of psychology and sociology.  As can be seen from the preceding discussion, a lion’s share of the work in the study of human motivation was done in the 1960s and 70s – a period marked by a remarkable flowering of scholarship aimed at understanding the human mind and its interactions with human society.  MOTIVATION THEORIES  Several of these theories were also developed in response to the need of growing business and commerce to increase the productivity of their employees or to find ways to increase their satisfaction with their work.  Whatever be their source of origin, most of these theories continue to remain relevant today and inform our understanding of the human mind and the forces that drive it to action. …THE END…