Unit 1: Introduction To Cognitive Psychology PDF

Unit 1 Ch. 1: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology Cognitive processes continuously taking place in your mind and in the minds of the people around you. Cognitive psychology the study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think...

Unit 1 Ch. 1: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology Cognitive processes continuously taking place in your mind and in the minds of the people around you. Cognitive psychology the study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think about information. A cognitive psychologist studies how people perceive various shapes, why they remember some facts but forget others, or how they learn language. Heuristics mental shortcuts we use to process information. Dialectic developmental process whereby ideas evolve over time through a back-and-forth exchange of ideas; discussion spread over an extended period of time. Dialectical process THESIS is proposed (CYCLE) ○ A statement of belief ANTITHESIS emerges ○ A statement that counters a thesis SYNTHESIS integrates the viewpoints ○ It integrates the most credible features of each of two or more views. (it becomes a thesis) Philosophy general nature of worldly aspects, ideas and experiences through introspection Introspection - examination of inner ideas and experiences Physiology study of life-sustaining functions in living matter through empirical methods Empirical - observation based Rationalist/ Rationalism knowledge is through thinking and logical analysis - Plato Theory Development only theory, no observation may be invalid Empiricist/ Empiricism knowledge via empirical evidence ( we obtain through experience and observation) - Aristotle Validating Theories Only observations without a theoretical framework may be meaningless Cogito, ergo sum (I think, by French rationalist René Descartes therefore I am) the only proof of his existence is that he was thinking and doubting. Tabula rasa (blank slate) by British empiricist John Locke life and experience “write” knowledge on us study of learning was key to understanding human mind Immanuel Kant argues that rationalism and empiricism must both work together in the quest for the truth. Structuralism seeks to understand the structure of mind and its perceptions. Introspection: conscious observation of one’s own thinking processes aims to look at the elementary components of an object or processes Functionalism function; purpose seeks to understand what people do and why they do it. focuses on the process of thought rather than its contents. can lead to pragmatism Pragmatics knowledge validated by its usefulness wanting to know what we can do with our knowledge of what people do. (What can you do with it?) Associationism how elements of the mind (events, process, ideas) are associated with one another and will result in learning. structure & function; association Association may result from: Contiguity - occurs simultaneously/ same time Similarity - same features or properties Contrast - show polarities (hot/cold, light/dark) Behaviorism relation between observable behavior and environmental events or stimuli the idea was to make physical whatever others called “mental” classical conditioning - Ivan Pavlov temporal contiguity + contingency extreme version of associationism Classical conditioning an automatic, conditioned response that is paired with a specific stimulus behaviors are learned by connecting a neutral stimulus with a positive one. Ex: dogs hear a bell (neutral) and expected food (positive) ○ temporal contiguity: neutral stimulus (food) and conditioned stimulus occuring at the same time ○ contingency: degree to which CS and US occur together and how the response is depended on this association; consequence of other event. [Conditioned stimulus] - CS [Unconditional stimulus] - US can be in a form of reward or punishment Operant conditioning involves strengthening and weakening of behavior, contingent on the presence or absence of reinforcement (rewards) or punishment. a method of learning that uses rewards or punishment to modify behavior. ○ behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated ○ behavior that is punished happens less Black box behaviorists regarded the mind as black box. mind can be understood in terms of input and output. internal processes cannot be accurately described because they are not observable. Edward Tolman believed that all behavior is directed towards a goal. What about the purpose of and plan for the behavior? (Father of Modern Psychology) Social learning by Bandura learning appears to result not just from our own behavior, but of society. resulting from observations of the rewards or punishments given to others. Gestalt psychology we best understand psychological phenomena when we view them as organized, structured wholes. “the whole is more than the sum of its parts” Cognitivism belief that most human behavior explains how people think synthesis of behaviorism + Gestalt and all the other past beliefs Karl Spencer Lashley the human brain is a passive organ merely responding to environmental contingencies outside the individual. Lash-ley considered the brain to be an active, dynamic organizer of behavior. Donald Hebb proposed the concept of cell assemblies as the basis for learning in the brain. Cell assemblies are coordinated neural structures that develop through frequent stimulation. Unit 1 Ch. 4: Attention and Consciousness Attention we actively select and process a limited amount of information from all of the information captured by our senses, our stored memories, and our other cognitive processes includes both conscious and unconsciousness process How Does Attention Work? At any point in time, we perceive a lot of sensory information. Through attentional processes (which can be automatic or controlled), we filter out the information that is relevant to us and that we want to attend to. Eventually, this filtering leads to our taking action on the basis of the information we attended to. Consciousness includes both the feeling of awareness and the content of awareness Attention and consciousness form two partially overlapping sets [ex: writing you name requires little conscious awareness compared to writing a name you’ve never encountered] Conscious attention plays a causal role in cognition and serves 3 purposes: helps monitor interactions with environment assists in linking our past (memories) and our present (sensations) to give us a sense of continuity of experience. helps us control and plan for our future actions based on the information from monitoring and links between the past memories and present sensations. Signal Detection Theory people pick out the important stimuli embedded in a wealth of irrelevant, distracting stimuli. 4 possible outcomes when trying to detect a target stimulus (signal) hits - correctly identifies presence of target false alarms - incorrectly identifies; it is actually absent misses - fails to observe presence of target correct rejections - correctly identifies the absence of a target. STD discussed in context of attention, perception, or memory: attention - paying enough attention to perceive objects that are there. perception - perceiving faint signals that may or may not be beyond your perceptual range (high-pitched tone). memory - indicating whether you have or have not been exposed to a stimulus before, such as whether the word champagne appeared on a list that was to be memorized. Vigilance person’s ability to attend to a field of stimulation over a prolonged period, during which the person seeks to detect the appearance of a particular target of stimulus of interest Search a scan of the environment for particular features— actively looking for something when you are not sure where it will appear Future search - looking for just one feature (color, shape, size)  that is different from others. Conjunction search - combining two or more features Feature-integration theory it is relatively easy to conduct feature searches and relatively difficult to conduct conjunction searches. Similarity theory the more similar the target and distracters are, the more difficult it is to find the target. Selective attention We choose to attend to some stimuli and ignore others. cocktail party problem ○ process of tracking one conversation while distracted by other conversations. shadowing ○ listening to two different messages dichotic presentation ○ each ear is presented with a separate message and you are to follow only one message and ignore the other. Early Filter Model we filter information right after we notice it at a sensory level (BROADBENTS) that stimuli are filtered, or selected to be attended to, at an early stage during processing. A filter can be regarded as the selector of relevant information based on basic features, such as color, pitch, or direction of stimuli. [ex: you are talking to somebody and suddenly someone calls your name and you’re able to hear it.] Attenuation Model the unselected sensory inputs are processed in decreased (TREISMAN) intensity. filter attenuates (Weaken) rather than eliminates (Remove) the unattended material. Selective Filter Model filter blocks out most information at the sensory level (MORAY) but some personally important messages are so powerful that they burst through the filtering mechanism Later-Filter Model stimuli filtered out only after they have been analyzed for both their physical properties and their meaning. preattentive processes: ○ rapid and occurs in parallel; do not discern meaning or relationships attentive, controlled processes: ○ occurs later; working memory; information is processed in much more detail. Divided Attention engaging in two or more tasks at the same time capacity models of attention ○ we can perform more than one  attention-demanding task at a time. ○ [ex: driving while texting] 4 Factors Influencing Our anxiety Ability to Pay Attention ○ it places constraints on action arousal ○ limits attention [tired, drowsy] ○ enhances when you’re excited task difficulty ○ you’ll need to give more attention to harder tasks than easier or more familiar ones skills ○ the more practice and skills you have in a task, the more your attention is enhanced. Alerting being prepared to attend to some incoming event, and maintaining this attention. Orienting selection of stimuli to attend to. Executive Attention processes for monitoring and resolving conflicts that arise among internal processes. thoughts, feelings, and responses Change blindness inability to detect changes in objects or scenes that are being viewed Inattentional blindness people are not able to see things that are actually there Spatial neglect/ you fail to be aware of items to one side of space; patients hemineglect ignore half of their visual field opposite to the side of the brain that has a lesion. Automatic processes performed without conscious awareness demands little to no effort/ intention 2 or more processes can occur at once; relatively fast Controlled processes requires conscious control occurs one step at a time; takes a long time to be executed [ex: computing total cost a trip] Automization controlled processes that eventually become amatic ones as a result or practice. also termed as proceduralization Instance theory learning can occur on a single exposure to an object or event  Stroop effect visual selective attention Consciousness Preconscious processing Priming occurs when an individual’s exposure to a certain stimulus influences their response to a subsequent prompt, without any awareness of the connection [ex: “say silk 10 times”. when asked what does a cow drink? you say “milk”.] the sound of the silk and concept of the cow are associated with the sound and concept of “milk” Tip-of-the-tongue trying to remember something that is stored in memory but that phenomenon cannot readily be retrieved. UNIT 2 Ch. 5 Memory Chapter 5 Memory we retain and draw on information from our past experiences to use in the present. it refers to the dynamic mechanisms associated with storing, retaining, and retrieving information about past experience. stages in memory processing: encoding ○ you transform sensory data into a form of mental representation. storage ○ you keep encoded information in memory. retrieval ○ you pull out or use information stored in memory Recall you produce a fact, word, or item from memory requires active search and reconstruction of memory 3 main types of recall: serial recall ○ recalling items in the exact order free recall ○ recalling items in any order you choose cued recall ○ recalling information using aids or cues ○ you must recall the mate for that paired item. ○ [ex: in guessing “feather”, the word “bird” may be used as cued recall] Recognition you select or identify an item as being one that you have learned previously. it is usually much better/ easier than recall. Recognition-memory task responding to stimuli presented to you and decide if you have seen them before or not Recall-memory task you have to produce an answer; it require expressive knowledge Relearning number of trials it takes to learn once again items that were learned in the past. Explicit memory engaging in conscious recollection recall & recognition declines with age It is typically impaired in amnesia. amnesia victims perform extremely poorly on most explicit memory tasks. Implicit memory using information from memory but are not consciously aware that we are doing so. reliable over time tends to remain stable Two tasks that involve implicit memory priming effect ○ your ability to utilize missing information ○ you perform better when you have seen the word on a recently presented list. ○ [ex: fill in the blanks imp———, you’ve seen the word implicit so you’ll most likely fill in that answer. procedural memory  ○ learning and remembering how to perform a task of actions ○ [ex: driving] ○ mirror tracing Process-dissociation assumes that implicit and explicit memory both have a role in model virtually every response. Two structures of memory Primary memory ○ holds temporary information currently in use Secondary memory ○ holds information permanently or for a very long time Three memory stores Sensory store ○ stores limited information for brief periods Short-term store ○ stores information for somewhat longer periods but limited capacity Long-term store ○ stores information for very long periods, even indefinitely; large capacity Hypothetical constructs concepts that are not themselves directly measurable or observable but that serve as mental models for understanding how a psychological phenomenon works. Sensory store (iconic initial repository of much information that eventually enters the store) shorthand long-term stores; first hand, small amounts. Iconic store - information fades rapidly; information stored in the form of icons or visual images that represent something. Sperling’s Discovery how much information we can encode in a single, brief glance at a set of stimuli. Whole-report procedure - participants report every symbol they have seen. Partial-report procedure - participants need to report only part of what they see. Short-term store holds memory for about 30 sec to a minute, unless it is rehearsed to retain it. it does more than hold onto a few times. stored acoustically (the way it sounds) rather than visually (the way it looks) mental capacity are about 7 items, plus or minus two ○ in general: 7 items ○ visual: 4 items Long-term store we keep memories that stay with us over long periods, perhaps indefinitely mental capacity: we don’t know the limits Permastore - very long-term storage of information, such as knowledge of a foreign language and of mathematics. Levels-of-processing continuous dimension in terms of depth of encoding. (LOP) framework items can be encoded through elaboration deeper understanding of material to be learned Self-reference effect high levels of recall when asked to meaningfully relate words to themselves by determining whether the words describe them. which are you? happy or sad the highest levels of recall occur with words that people consider self-descriptive Two kinds of strategies for Within-item elaboration elaborating the encoding ○ encoding of a particular item in terms of characteristics Between-item elaboration ○ relating each items’ features to the features of items already in memory Working memory holds only the most recently activated, or conscious, portion of long-term memory and moves these into and out of brief, temporary memory storage manipulation of information Cowan says working memory is embedded within long-term memory. 5 elements that comprises visuospatial sketchpad working memory ○ briefly holds some visual images. ○ [ex: picturing out how your friends look of working on a puzzle]  phonological loop ○ briefly stores mainly verbal information for verbal comprehension and acoustic rehearsal. ○ [ex: sounding out new and hard words or solving word problems] ○ phonological storage: holds information by memory. ○ subvocal rehearsal holds information by nonverbally practicing it. central executive ○ allocates attention within working memory. ○ it is the gating mechanism that decides what information to process further and how to process this information. subsidiary slave systems ○ performs other cognitive or perceptual tasks episodic buffer ○ allows us to solve problems and reevaluate previous experiences with more recent knowledge. Tasks to Assess Working retention-delay task (item) Memory ○ task: old or new? ○ you are shown a series of items and have to answer if the test item given is old or new. ○ [+ and - are in a series of item, then you are shown another “=“ item in which you have to guess if it was shown or not, it is NEW.] temporally ordered working memory load task (item) ○ task: old or new? ○ you are shown a series of items, after a while, there is a **** item presented in which you have to identify if it is old or new ○ [ex: 5,3,7,2 is shown previously, then 4 is presented to you, in which it is NEW.] temporal order task (relational) ○ task: which is most recent? ○ you are shown a series of items, followed by a **** item in which you have to identify which of them appeared more recently. ○ [ex: 5,3,7,2 is shown previously, followed by 3 and 7 presented to you. Which of the two have you seen more recently? it is 7.] n-back task (relational)  ○ task: find and repeat n-back ○ [ex: 3,7,9,7,6,6,9 are shown. you are asked to repeat the digit that occured one back in 6. The answer is 6] temporally ordered working memory load task (digit-span task) ○ task: reproduce in correct order ○ [ex: 5,3,7,2 is shown to you, you have to repeat them back in the order they were presented] temporally ordered working memory load task (running span task ○ task: reproduce final items in correct order ○ you are shown a series of arithmetic problems in correct order. you are then to repeat the result or answer of each arithmetic problems in the correct order. ○ Semantic memory stores general world knowledge. memory to facts not unique to us Episodic memory stores personally experienced events or episodes. when we learn list of words or recalling something that occurred to us at a particular time Mmemonist someone who demonstrates extraordinarily keen memory ability, usually based on using special techniques for memory enhancement Synesthesia experience of sensations in a sensory modality different from the sense that has been physically stimulated. Hypermnesia process of producing retrieval of memories that would seem to have been forgotten sometimes loosely referred to as “unforgetting”. psychodynamic therapy is sometimes used to try to achieve hypermnesia. Deficient memory how memory works Two syndromes Amnesia - sever loss of explicit memory ○ retrograde amnesia losing their purposeful memory for events before whatever trauma induces memory loss. ○ anterograde amnesia the inability to remember events that occur after a traumatic event ○ infantile amnesia the inability to recall events that happened when we were young. Two kinds of task involved in amnesia victims: ○ procedural-knowledge: knowing how [driving] ○ declarative knowledge: knowing that [factual information] dissociations: normal individuals show the presence of a particular function. double dissociations: showing opposite patterns of deficits. Alzheimer’s disease: disease of older adults that causes dementia as well as progressive memory loss. typically recognized on the basis of loss of intellectual function in daily life. UNIT 2 Ch. 6: Memory B Chapter 6 Encoding transforming a physical, sensory input into a representation that can be placed into memory. Storage storing (keeping) encoded information in memory. Retrieval gaining access to information stored in memory. Forms of encoding we encode our memories to store them short-term long-term Short-term storage primarily encoded in acoustic form we seem to encode visually presented letters by how they sound, not by how they look. easier to forget visual information than acoustic information. semantic code: one based on word meaning. Long-term storage primarily encoded semantically encoded by the meaning of words participants move more information into long-term memory when using a semantic encoding strategy than when using a non-semantic strategy. acoustic information—in addition to visual and semantic information—can be encoded in long-term memory. Two key problems in interference transferring information ○ kkjkjk from short to long ○ [ex: mixing up plot or story of an actor’s two movies] decay ○ forgetting facts just because time passes Declarative memory refers to facts and knowledge. Nondeclarative memory refers to procedural memories such as skills. Consolidation integrating new information into stored information. Metamemory strategies reflecting on our own memory processes to improve our memory. transferring new information to long-term memory by rehearsing it. Metacognition ability to think about and control our own processes of thought and ways of enhancing our thinking. simply put, it is thinking about how we think. Rehearsal repeated recitation of an item (practice effects) Rehearsal may be: overt - aloud and obvious to anyone watching covert - silent and hidden Elaborative rehearsal individual elaborates on the items to be remembered. it makes the items either more meaningfully integrated into what the person already knows or more meaningfully connected to one another and therefore more memorable. this helps move information into long-term memory. without any kind of elaboration, information cannot be organized and transferred. Maintenance rehearsal individual repeats the items to be remembered. this temporarily maintains information in short-term memory without transferring the information to long-term memory.