Introduction to Sociology Final Exam Study Guide PDF

**[Introduction to sociology final exam study guide]** **[Chapter 1 Introduction to sociology:]** - - - - - - Auguste Comte: Positivism : the scientific study of social patterns. \- Believed that sociologists could address problems such as education and poverty. The Co...

**[Introduction to sociology final exam study guide]** **[Chapter 1 Introduction to sociology:]** - - - - - - Auguste Comte: Positivism : the scientific study of social patterns. \- Believed that sociologists could address problems such as education and poverty. The Course in Positive Philosophy (1830- 1842) - Harriet Martineau: - - Karl Marx: -Believed societies grew as a result of struggles of different social and political classes. -Predicted that social change came through social conflict. -This was a general rejection of positivism. -Communist Manifesto (1848) Herbert spencer: -In 1873, the English philosopher Herbert Spencer published *The Study of Sociology*, the first book with the term "sociology" in the title. Spencer rejected much of Comte's philosophy as well as Marx's theory of class struggle and his support of communism. \- He favored a form of government that allowed market forces to control capitalism. His work influenced many early sociologists including Émile Durkheim (1858--1917). \- "This survival of the fittest", which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called 'natural selection,' or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life." (Spencer, 1864). The statement is often misinterpreted and adopted by those who believe in the superiority of one race over another. Emile Durkheim: -Focused on sociological study of objective social facts. \- Such studies could determine the health of a society. -Studied social ties that led to social solidarity. -Also wrote extensively on deviations from social solidarity, which will be covered in the chapter on deviance and crime. -Division of Labour in Society (1893) -Rules of the Sociological Method (1895) -Suicide (1897) Herbert Mead: -George Herbert Mead was a philosopher and sociologist whose work focused on the ways in which the mind and the self were developed as a result of social processes (Cronk, n.d.). -He argued that how an individual comes to view himself or herself is based to a very large extent on interactions with others. -Though Mead adopted Cooley's concept of 'looking-glasses,' Mead felt that an individual's reaction to a positive or negative reflection depended on who the 'other' was. -Individuals that had the greatest impact on a person's life were **significant others** while **generalized others** were the organized and generalized attitude of a social group. -Mead often shares the title of father of symbolic interactionism with Cooley and Erving Goffman. Max Weber: -The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904) -The Nature of Social Action (1922) -Verstehen: a German word that means to understand in a deep way. In seeking verstehen, outside observers of a social world---an entire culture or a small setting--- attempt to understand it from an insider's point of view. -Antipositivism: strive for subjectivity to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values. -Quantitative Sociology: uses statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants. Researchers analyze data using statistical techniques to see if they can uncover patterns of human behavior. -Qualitative Sociology:seeks to understand human behavior by learning about it through in depth interviews, focus groups, and analysis of content sources (like books, magazines, journals, and popular media). W.E.B Dubois: -His groundbreaking 1896-1897 study of the African American community in Philadelphia incorporated hundreds of interviews Du Bois conducted in order to document the familial and employment structures and assess the chief challenges of the community. -These new, comprehensive research methods stood in stark contrast to the less scientific practices of the time, which Du Bois critiqued as being similar to doing research as if through the window of a moving car. -played a prominent role in the effort to increase rights for Black people. -Concerned at the slow pace of progress and advice from some Black leaders to be more accommodating of racism, Du Bois became a leader in what would later be known as the Niagara Movement. -In 1905, he and others drafted a declaration that called for immediate political, economic, and social equality for African Americans. -A few years later, he helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and served as its director of publications. -Structural functionalism(Macro or mid): The way each part of society functions together to contribute to the functioning of the whole Ex: How each organ works to keep your body healthy or not -Conflict theory(macro theory): The way inequalities and inequalities contribute to social, political, and power differences and how they perpetuate power Ex: The ones with the most toys wins and they will change the rules to the games to keep winning -Symbolic interactionism(Micro theory): The way one-to-one interactions and communications behave Ex: What's it mean to be an X? Why Study sociology? /Why is sociology an important field of study?: Studying sociology can provide people with this wide knowledge and a skill set that can contribute to many workplaces, including: -An understanding of social systems and large bureaucracies; -The ability to devise and carry out research projects to assess whether a program or policy is working; -The ability to collect, read, and analyze statistical information from polls or surveys; -The ability to recognize important differences in people's social, cultural, and economic backgrounds; -skills in preparing reports and communicating complex ideas; and -The capacity for critical thinking about social issues and problems that confront modern society. **[Chapter 2: Sociological Research]** -Empirical evidence: Is evidence that comes from direct experience, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation -Meta analysis: A technique in which the results of virtually all previous studies on a specific subject are evaluated together -Hypothesis: A testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables -Scientific method: An established scholarly research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions -Independent variables: Are variables that cause changes in dependent variables -Dependent variables: Are variables changed by other variables -Operational definition:Sociologists define each concept, or variable, in terms of the physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it. -Reliability: How likely research results are to be replicated if the study is reproduced. Increases the likelhood that what happens to one person will happen to all people in a group or what will happen in one situation in another -Validity: How well the study measures what it was designed to measure -Surveys: Collects data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, in the form of a questionnaire or an interview -Population: People who are the focus of a study, such as college athletes, international students, or teenagers living with type 1 diabetes -Samples: A manageable number of subjects who represent a larger population -Random sample: Every person in a populations has the same chance of being chosen for the study -Interview: A one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject, and is the way of conducting surveys on a topic -Quantitative data: Represents research collected in a numerical form that can be counted -Qualitative data: Compromises information that is subjective and often debated on what is seen in a natural setting -Field research: Gathering primary data from a natural environment -Primary data: Data collected directly from firsthand experience -Correlation: When a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable, but does not necessarily indicate causation -Participant observation: Researcher immerses themselves in a group or social setting to make observations from an insider perspective -Ethnography: Observing a complete social setting and that all it entails Step 1 Ask a question: -Question should be narrow enough to study within a specific environment, such as a finite time frame or a location. -Question should be Broad enough to have value for people outside of the study participants, or (even better) can inform people outside the immediate environments. Step 2 Review the literature/ Research existing sources: -A visit to the library, a thorough online search, and a survey of academic journals will uncover existing research about the topic of study. -This step helps researchers gain a broad understanding of work previously conducted, identify gaps in understanding of the topic, and position their own research to build on prior knowledge. -it must be referenced properly and never plagiarized. Step 3 Formulate a hypothesis: -The hypothesis will often predict how one form of human behavior influences another. -we formulate hypotheses to include an **independent variables (IV)**, which are the *cause* of the change, and a **dependent variable (DV)**, which is the *effect*, or thing that is changed. -A hypothesis might be in the form of an "if, then statement." Let's relate this to our topic of crime: If unemployment increases, then the crime rate will increase. Step 4 design and conduct a study: -Researchers design studies to maximize **reliability**, which refers to how likely research results are to be replicated if the study is reproduced. -A study asking how tutoring improves grades, for instance, might define "tutoring" as "one-on-one assistance by an expert in the field, hired by an educational institution." -For the results to be replicated and gain acceptance within the broader scientific community, researchers would have to use a standard operational definition. -These definitions set limits and establish cut-off points that ensure consistency and replicability in a study. Step 5 Draw conclusions: -Tabulate and analyze the results in an organized fashion that will make sense to others who want to either learn about, evaluate, repeat, or build on the experiment/study. -Decide if the research supports or does not support the hypothesis. -If it does not support it, consider why: -Is the hypothesis wrong? -Was something wrong with the study? -Did something occur that you didn't account for? -why sociological research is so important?: It allows us to systematically study and understand social patterns, behaviors, and issues within society by using the scientific method to collect empirical evidence which identifies social problems, and inform policy decisions based on objective data rather than personal opinions or biases. -sociology is a social science that uses the scientific method. **[Chapter 3 Culture: ]** -Culture: Refers to shared beliefs, values, and practices -Material culture: Refers to the objects or belongings of a group of people -nonmaterial culture: Refers to the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society -Cultural universals: Refers to the patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies -Ethnocentrism: Is the practice of evaluating another culture according to the standards of one's own culture -Culture shock: An experience of personal disorientation when confronted with an unfamiliar way of life -Cultural imperialism: The deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture -Cultural relativism: The practice of assessing a culture by its own standards -xenocentrism: A belief that another culture is superior to one's own -Values: Are a culture's standard for discerning what is good and just in society -Sanctions: A way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors -Social control: A way to encourage conformity to cultural norms -Norms: Visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured -Informal norms: Casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to -Formal norms: Established written rules -Symbols: Provide communication methods to understanding experiences by conveying recognizable meanings that are shared by societies -Language: A system that uses symbols with which people communicate and though which culture is transmitted -Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Based on the idea that people experience their world through their language, and understand their world through the cultural meanings embedded in their language -Subcultures: People that are apart of the larger culture but also shares a specific identity within a smaller group -Countercultures: Rejects some of the larger culture's norms and values. Can actively defy larger society by developing their own set of rules and norms to live by, even creating communities that operate outside of greater society -Know the importance of norms and norm-following: Norms are important because they act as invisible rules of conduct that structure societies providing a framework for expected behaviors and ensuring smooth social interactions. Norm-following helps to maintain social order and cohesion -Understand the cyclical relationship between culture and our beliefs, values, and norms: -Culture is formed by the collective beliefs, values, and norms of a group, which are shaped and reinforced by the larger cultural context they live in -norms change over time and from one location or one group to the next. **[Chapter 5 Socialization: ]** -Socialization: The process through which people are taught to be proficient members of a society -Self: Refers to a person's distinct identity that is developed through social action -Generalized other: The common behavioral expectations of general society -Moral development: The way people learn what society considers to be good and bad which is important for a smoothly functioning society Understand the nature/nurture debate: -Some experts assert that who we are is a result of **nurture**---the relationships and caring that surround us. Others argue that who we are is based entirely on genetics. According to this belief, our temperaments, interests, and talents are set before birth. From this perspective, then, who we are depends on **nature**. -One way researchers attempt to measure the impact of nature is by studying twins. Some studies have followed identical twins who were raised separately. -The pairs shared the same genetics but in some cases were socialized in different ways. -Studying the degree to which identical twins raised apart are the same and different can give researchers insight into the way our temperaments, preferences, and abilities are shaped by our genetic makeup versus our social environment. -Know the major social group agents/agents of socialization and the impacts that each has on the socialization process: -Family: Children first learn basic life skills, values, and behaviors from parents and caregivers, influencing their sense of self and social identity -Peer group: Provides opportunities for social interaction, developing social skills, and learning group dynamics, important during adolescence where peer acceptance can be highly influential -School: Teaches academic knowledge, social norms, discipline, and cooperation through interactions with teachers and peers, contributing to the development of a wider social perspective -Workplace: Socializes individuals into professional norms, work ethics, and specific job skills shaping their behaviors and attitudes within a professional setting -Religion: Tramists moral codes, beliefs, rituals that provides a sense of community and shaping individuals' worldviews -Media: Exposes individuals to a wide range of information, values, and social norms through television, internet, and other platforms, shaping their perceptions of reality -Understand how crucial the process of socialization is to one's upbringing: -Socialization is crucial to a person's upbringing because it is the process through which individuals learn the norms, values, and beliefs of their society by shaping their behavior and understanding the world around them to function effectively within their social group. **[Chapter 6 Social groups:]** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Know - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **[Chapter 19 Health and Medicine: ]** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - \- statistics on the general health and the mental health of theU.S. population Know about some of the different health diagnoses and treatments (e.g., ADHD,autism spectrum disorders): \- Approximately one in five US adults experience a mental illness, with 23.1% of the adult population diagnosed with a mental health condition which translates to around 59.3 million people \- ADHD: A developmental disorder impacting communication and social interaction, often presenting with repetitive behaviors; interventions include behavioral therapy, speech therapy, and specialized educational programs. \- Depression: A mood disorder characterized by persistent sadness, loss of interest, and fatigue; treated with therapy (cognitive behavioral therapy), medication (antidepressants), or lifestyle changes. Anxiety disorders: Characterized by excessive worry and fear, including panic attacks, social anxiety, and generalized anxiety disorder; treated with therapy, medication (anti-anxiety drugs), or relaxation techniques. - - - **[Chapter 14 Family:]** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **[Chapter 8 Media: ]** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Functionalism: - - - - - - - - **[Chapter 12 Gender and sexuality:]** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **[Chapter 11 Race and ethnicity:]** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **[Wrapping Up:]** - - - - - - - - - - - - - -