Introduction to Linguistics Revision PDF

Introduction to linguistics revision - Linguists analyze the underlying structures and mechanisms of human language in general. Knowledge of sound system - Recognize its sounds and distinguish them from non-native sounds...

Introduction to linguistics revision - Linguists analyze the underlying structures and mechanisms of human language in general. Knowledge of sound system - Recognize its sounds and distinguish them from non-native sounds - Knowing which sounds may start a word, end a word, and follow each other Knowledge of words Arbitrariness. Onomatopoeia - no natural relationship between the word - words that imitate the sounds “buzz”, “zap” And the meaning. Creativity of linguistics - made by Noam Chomsky - speakers can use finite number of linguistic units of their language to produce - enables creating new sentences that have never been spoken - unlimited lengths of sentences - understanding new sentences Competence : the knowledge of words and grammar which allows them to create unlimited sentences. Performance: how a speaker uses this knowledge in actual speech production and comprehension. Theories of origins of language The divine source: The bow-wow source: - from the book of genesis - Humans imitated the sounds from nature - it was said everyone spoke the same - Such as CAWCAW language - Proof for this theory is onomatopoeic words. - nimrod built the tower of babel to reach god - as punishment god scattered the language, no one could understand each other The pooh-pooh theory: - Humans developed words from instincts - When one gets hurt, they say “ouch” - This is done by inhaling while speaking is done by exhaling  Grammar Descriptive: actual use of language Prescriptive: rules established by objectively as it used by the speaker grammarians that dictate what is correct without judging the speakers usage and incorrect grammar, rather than what whether it is correct or not. they are. Ex. Ex. “I aint got no money” You must not end a sentence with a preposition. - Who did you go with? Is wrong - With whom did you go with? Teaching grammar is needed for: - assisting people who do not speak standard dialect and want to learn it for social or economic benefit - teaching languages in school - teaching pronunciations of words universal grammar - universal language rules that apply to all languages such as forming questions, issue commands, refer to past and future. - Also Noam chomskys idea - Major aim of linguistic theory Development of grammar with a baby - Picks up language in relatively short time with ease - Do not need specific language instructions - Gender or social status does not affect this - Child goes through babbling stage that ends up being complex words - Suggests language development is innate » Sign language also shares universal grammar » Using hand, body and facial gestures » Slips of hand occur » Deaf children can develop babbling with hands » Resembles spoken languages in all major aspects  What is not human language Discreteness: distinguishes human Displacement: distinguishes language from animals. human language system from - pot can be opt or top, this creativity birds and other animals. depends on discreteness They cannot speak about time, or specific events - dogs can associate words with specific movements - birds may repeat words but they do not understand what they’re saying - chimps could learn signs but cannot speak as their vocal tracts do not allow properties of human language 1. arbitrariness was talked about previously 2. displacement was talked about 3. Cultural transmission - We do not inherit languages through genetics - We acquire language from a culture with speakers - For example, if a Japanese kid was raised by Americans, he will speak English as that is what he was taught. He will not know Japanese 4. Productivity: humans can continually create new expressions by manipulating linguistic resources to describe new objects and situations. - Animals are not like this - This lack of productivity in animal communication is called fixed reference. 5. Duality: human language is organized at two levels simultaneously. - we speak, we have a physical level at which we produce individual sounds - we then combine these sounds ( for example: n, b, i) and it becomes bin.  the chimps Chimp lana chimp Washoe - artificial language Yerkish - Allen and Beatrix gardner -learned limited symbols -learned 100 ASL signs -washoes sentences 2 worded Chimp Sarah - answers ques,ans convos - learned using plastic pieces - produces simple sentences - needed reinforcement -Ann and David premack Sapir-whorf theory (linguistic theory) - theory that the language we use influences the way we think or perceive the world - many scholars deem It false PHONETICS segment = sound articulator= organ of speech articulation= pronunciation articulate= to pronounce Branches of phonetics Articulatory: - speaker uses organs to Auditory: produce sounds - sound waves reaches listeners ears Acoustic: - sound waves travel from speakers mouth to listeners ears.  Phonology - studies the sound system of a language. » Phonology starts where phonetics end. Phonics - Method of teaching, reading and writing that relies on phonological awareness. Correlating sounds with letters. Components of pronunciation Segmental: Syllable: - focuses on place of - phonological unit whose articulation and manner nucleus is a vowel and may be Suprasegmental: preceded or followed by a - focuses on things over and consonants. above sound values such as place and manner Segmental features Vowels Consonants Short. Long voiced. Voiceless Monophthongs Diphthongs  Suprasegmental Prosody voice quality loudness intonation stress pitch range. Pitch movement syllable onset. Rhyme/rime nucleus. coda C A T Onset: any consonant preceding the nucleus. Could be 0,1,2,3. Nucleus: obligatory syllabic segment that is composed of a vowel. Coda: any consonant following the nucleus. Coda is optional. Open syllable doesn’t have final consonant such as GO! Closed syllable has final consonant such as got. Passive articulators does not move during articulation (upper jaw) Active articulators does move during articulation (lower Jaw) Consonant sound: sound produced with SOME constriction of the airflow. IPA example: speak /spi:/ Places of articulation Bilabial: where the two lips meet to produce a sound. Sounds such as /b/, /p/ and /m/ Labiodental: upper front teeth and lower lip meets to produce sounds. such as /f/ and /v/. interdental: tip of tongue goes inbetween the teeth for sounds such as TH. /θ/ and /ð/ Alveolar: tip of tongue meets with alveolar ridge. Sounds like /l/, /d/, /s/, /z/,/n/,/t/,/r/ Post-alveolar: the tongue touching the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palte. /ʃ/ , /tʃ/ , /ʒ/ , /dʒ/ Glottal: made by manipulating airflow through the glottis. Sounds /h/ and/ʔ/. Velar: the back part of the tongue against the soft palate. Sounds like [k], [g] and [ŋ]. Palatal: raising the blade of the tongue toward the hard palate. Sounds like /j/ like “Yeah”. Manner of articulation Stop: 1.total closure of airstream at point of articulation 2.followed immediately by a release of the airstream by opening mouth /b/,/d/,/k/,/t/,/g/,/p/ and /ʔ/ Fricative: consonant produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. /θ/, /ð/, /ʒ/,/ʃ/,/s/,/z/,/f/,/v/ Affricates: a consonant that begins as a stop and releases as a fricative. /tʃ/,/dʒ/ Nasal: lowering the velum, so air passes through the nose and mouth such as /m/,/n/,[ŋ] Liquid: articulated when tongue produces partial closure in mouth so airstream flows around it. /r/ and /L/ Glide: (semi-vowels) they sound vowel like but must precede or follow a vowel to make a syllable such as /j/=y or /w/ To describe a consonant: voicing, place of articulation, manner of articulation Vowel: sound produced without significant construction. Monothong Vowel and its Sounds Monothong: a vowel sound pronounced as a single, unchanging sound /i:/= “eeeeeeeeee”, long vowel sound, like BEACH /I/= short vowel sound, like BITCH /ʊ/= like BOOK or SUGAR /u/= like WHO, TOO, YOU /e/= like EGG or TEN /æ/= like CAT or APPLE /ə/= laziest sound , like THE or BROTHER /ɜː/= like PERSON or NURSE /ɔː/= like POOR or MORE or WALK /ʌ/= like BUTTER or MONEY /a:/= like CAR or AUNT /ɒ/= like DOG or WATCH or COUGH Describing a vowel According to quality - 2. Horizontal movement of tongue 1. Vertical movement of the - - front, central, back tongue. - - its height (high, mid, low) - 3. lips rounded or not According to quality - 4. Vowel length - - long or short 1. – high: produced by raising tongue beyond midpoint. - mid: produced with a tongue height that is intermediate between a low and high vowel. - low: produced by lowering the tongue 2. front: involves forward motion of tongue; /i:/ in feel - central: the tongue is between front and back; /ɜː/ in bird - back: withdrawl of tongue; /u:/ in soon 3. rounded or unrounded lips 4. long: tongue root pushed forward from neutral position /i:/, /u:/, /a:/, /ɜː/, /ɔː/ short: tongue root is resting normal position » if “:” is present, vowel is long » shwa is the weakest vowel : /ə/ » /æ/= short vowel  Diphthongs: a sound formed by the combination of two vowels in a single syllable. Like COIN or LOUD. Centering diphthong: Closing diphthongs: - ends in the shwa sound 1. /eɪ/- Examples: *say, day, cake, - are diphthongs where the tongue face, rain* moves from a lower vowel 2. /aɪ/ - Examples: *my, eye, kite, position to a higher one, typically time, buy* towards the /i/ or /u/ sounds. 3. /ɔɪ/ - Examples: *boy, toy, coin, joy, boil* 1. /eɪ/: "face," "day," "say." 4. /aʊ/- Examples: *now, cow, house, about, loud* 2. /aɪ/: “price," "high," "my." 5. /oʊ/ - Examples: *go, know, show, though, toe* 3. /ɔɪ/:"choice," "toy," "boy." 6./ ɪə/ (Common in British English) - Examples: *dear, fear, idea, clear, here* 4. /aʊ/: "mouth," "now," "cow." 7. /eə/ (Common in British English) - Examples: *hair, care, there, fair, 5. /əʊ/: "goat," "show," "no." pair* 8. /ʊə/ (Less common; British English) - Examples: *tour, pure, cure, sure* Triphthongs= DIPHTHONG + WEAK VOWEL (SHWA) 1. /aɪə/- as in "fire" or "liar." 2. /aʊə/ - as in "hour" or "tower." 3. /eɪə/ - as in "player" or "layer." 4. /oʊə/- as in "lower" or "mower." 5. /ɔɪə/- as in "lawyer" or "employer."