Intro to Sociology Notes PDF

Lecture 2: Seeing and thinking like a sociologist 1. C. Wright Mills (1959) - sociologist at Columbia University Key Question: “How did we get here where we are right now?” Core argument in The Sociological Imagination: move beyond individual-oriented perspectives Sociologi...

Lecture 2: Seeing and thinking like a sociologist 1. C. Wright Mills (1959) - sociologist at Columbia University Key Question: “How did we get here where we are right now?” Core argument in The Sociological Imagination: move beyond individual-oriented perspectives Sociological Imagination = interplay between personal troubles and public issues 2. Peter Berger’s Sociological Perspective - invitation to sociology (1963) Value-free sociology: - sociology is objective and based on scientific integrity - Sociologists must collect and analyze data without personal biases Debunking motif: - “Things are not what they seem” - Reveals multiple layers of meaning in social reality - Challenges taken for granted assumptions and encourage other understandings Depaysement: - “Looking at familiar things unfamiliarly” - Study everyday institutions and activities but transform their meaning 3. Sociology in Practice: Holocaust Example (Zygmunt Bauman) How did the Holocaust happen? - Hitler’s evilness + anti-semitism Bauman’s sociological explanation - Holocaust was a product of modernity (e.g. development of new technologies like mass transportation + bureaucratic rationality allowed it to happen) TEXTBOOK: Definition of the sociological imagination: The ability to connect personal experiences with broader societal and historical contexts. Helps individuals see their own lives as part of larger societal patterns. Offers insights into: - Feelings of alienation under capitalism. - Effects of historical and technological changes on society. - How nationality and geography shape life choices. Lecture 4: The development of sociological thinking Why do we need theories? It explains WHY things happen, not just WHAT happens Multiple (often competing) theories exist to explain phenomena The Industrial Revolution Impact: industrialization → urbanization → modern industrial capitalism Different approaches to industrialization and capitalism - Marx: capitalism’s effects on individuals and society predicting a downfall - Weber: origins of capitalism and its connection to bureaucratic administration - Durkheim: urbanization’s impact on community and solidarity 1. Karl Marx Alienation: workers feel estranged from… - Product: do not own what they create - Others: competition isolates them from fellow workers - Labour: repetitive, dehumanizing processes under capitalist control Class conflict: human history defined by struggles between classes - Bourgeoisie: capitalists owning means of production - Proletariat: working class dependent of capitalist employment (working class) + Class conflict is inevitable due to opposing interests Crises: capitalism = inherently unstable + leading to periodic economic crises due to overproduction - Overproduction → competition → underconsumption → unemployment → economic crises Communist Revolution: class conflict & economic crises will lead to a revolution - Features of communism: No private property, distribution of goods based on need, “from each according to his ability, to each according his needs” 2. Max Weber How was capitalism born? Criticizes Marx’s materialist focus on economic structures Incorporate culture, ideas, economics, politics The protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism - Calvinism's role in capitalism 1. Belief in predestination (heaven/hell predetermined by God) 2. Salvation panic led to anxiety about being “chosen” 3. Economic success seen as a sign of God’s will 4. Earned wealth reinvested into business (asceticism) instead of luxuries 3. Emile Durkheim Suicide and solidarity in society → impact of industrialization and capitalism on relationships and solidarity → why industrialization increased misery and suicide despite economic progess Anomie - Normlessness resulting from rapid societal changes (e.g. industrialization) - Pre-industrial societies had strict norms and less individual freedom - modern societies offer too much freedom → leading to isolation and anomic suicide Division of labor and solidarity - Mechanical solidarity: cohesion in small, undifferentiated societies with low division of labour (based on sameness, similarities) - Organic solidarity: cohesion in modern societies with high division of labour and interdependence (based on differences, interdependence) Modern Sociological Theories 1. Functionalism (structural functionalism influenced by Emile Durkheim) Social institutions exist to maintain societal stability and continuity Reinforces status quo and conservative agendas 2. Conflict Theory (Karl Marx) Emphasize conflict between competing interests (class conflict) Views inequality (gender, class) as inherent to social structures Critiques of functionalism’s focus on stability 3. Feminist Theory Branch of conflict theory focusing on gender inequality Challenges biological determinism + explores systematic gender inequality  4. Symbolic Interactionism Focus on micro-level interactions and how they shape the world Analyze daily behaviors e.g. speech, appearance, social presentation 5. Postmodernism Challenges grand narratives and objective truths Emphasizes subjectivity, relativism, and skepticism 6. Mid-range Theory Bridges theory + empirical research Dominates contemporary sociological research in the US Lecture 5: A gentle introduction to sociological research methods What is the scientific research methods? Based on empirical evidence NOT personal opinions/biases Systematic observation of the world Steps of the scientific method 1. Ask questions (e.g. why does X happen?) 2. Form a theory (background research) 3. Formulate a hypothesis 4. Design and conduct a study (experiments, systematic observations) 5. Draw conclusions (accept/reject hypothesis, revise theory) Hypothesis and variables Independent variable: factor believed to cause change Dependent variable: outcome being explained/studied Additional variables: mediator variable (how/why two variables are related) + Moderator variable (influence strength/direction of the relationship) Variable relationships: correlation & causality Correlation: association between two variables (e.g. higher income is associated with higher rates of melanoma in Canada) Causality: change in one variable causes a change in the other (e.g. more ice cream sales correlate with more drawing deaths → BUT one does not cause the other) - Requirements for establishing causality: correlation, time order, ruling out alternative explanations Choosing your research method: quantitative VS qualitative > Quantitative Approach: converts social information into numeric form Data collection methods: surveys, experiments Use statistical techniques to analyze trends, compare groups, compare correlations/causation > Qualitative Approach: meanings people attach to encounters, environments, objects E.g. how do 1st year HKU students describe their experiences in HKU Data collection methods: in-depth interviews (unstructured, open-ended), participant observation, archival review Two Reasoning Approaches > Deductive: theory → hypothesis → data → analyze to confirm/reject theory > Inductive: data/patterns → analysis → theory construction → result Ethics of Social Research Ethical considerations ensure research is trustworthy and valid Historical context: no formal research ethics in the US until the National Research Act (1974) → act established principles for research involving human subjects Golden rules for ethical research: - Human subjects protection: minimize risks (physical, emotional, psych) - Informed consent: subjects must fully understand what participation entails - Voluntary Participation: subjects can enter/leave freely - Openness: share data, results, and ideas, open to criticism Examples of Research Misconduct (“Deadly Sins”) Falsification: altering/ omitting data to support claims Fabrication: creating fake data or observations Plagiarism: using others’ work without proper acknowledgment, even unintentionally Lecture 6: Fundamental Concept 1: Culture What is culture? 1. Sociological definition: culture = “everything but nature”, ways of life of individuals in society, includes material and non-material culture 2. Type of culture: Material culture = physical objects created by society e.g. technology, buildings Non-material culture = values, norms, languages, symbols 3. Key concepts: values = abstract ideas/moral beliefs, norms = rules everyone is expected to follow 4. Interconnection: material and non-material culture influence each other Media, Culture, and Society 1. The Role of Media: media presents & communicates information + shapes beliefs, behaviors, interactions 2. Historical Examples: BLM (2020) - social media (#JusticecforGeorgeFloyed) facilitated protests 3. Media and Political Power: e.g. Nazi propaganda used mass media to shape public values and beliefs 4. Hegemony (Gramsci): ruling groups exercise moral/intellectual leadership by gaining voluntary consent Media hegemony theory - elite groups control mass media, shaping societal culture and values 5. Sociology of News: mainstream news reflects the views of elites + news reinforces political, ideological, and economic hierarchies How Do Internet Media Affect Us? 1. Changing Media Consumption: younger generations avoid TV and print news + internet-based media now dominate 2. Filter Bubbles: algorithms limit information individuals see + reinforce pre-existing views/perceptions + Risks of political polarization and reduced exposure to diverse perspectives Socialization: a process through which individuals internalize societal values, beliefs, and norms Phases of Socialization > Primary socialization: occurs in infancy and childhood, most intense period of cultural learning > Secondary socialization: occurs later e.g. schools, peers, media, workplace  + Socialization is NOT deterministic; individuals have AGENCY to make choices Agents of Socialization > Families: primary location of socialization - 2-way process → parents influence children, children influence parents - Impact varies by social class > Schools: primary site of socialization AFTER childhood - Peer groups, teachers become reference groups - Inequality-prone (e.g. private VS public schools) > Adult Socialization/Re-Socialization: lifelong process of learning/reengineering values, beliefs, norms Total Institutions (Agents of Re-Socialization) > environments where individuals are fully immersed, controlling day-to-day life > aim: resocialization or rehabilitation (e.g. drug rehabilitation, mental Institutions, prison) Social Interaction and Socialization - Robert Merton’s Role Theory Status: a position an individual occupies in society - Ascribed status: inherited or involuntary (e.g. race, gender) - Achieved status: earned or chosen )e.g. Job title, profession, career) - Status set: All statuses an individual holds - Master status: Dominant status that overrides others Roles: duties and behaviors expected of someone with a particular status - Role Strain: conflicts within a single status (e.g. student: juggling studies and jobs) - Role Conflict: Tensions between roles associated with different statuses (Family obligations VS Work) Lecture 8: Fundamental Concept 2: networks, groups, and organizations Key Concepts of Social Network Analysis (SNA) 1. Embeddedness & Strength of Weak Ties (Granovetter, 1985) Embeddedness: social/economic actions embedded in social networks Strength of Weak Ties: provide non-redundant information and bridge social gaps (e.g. job opp.) 2. Structural Holes Theory by Ronald Burt (1992) > Structural holes occur when no direct ties exist between two actors/groups > Opportunity to “broker; information and control its flow Difference from Weak Ties > Bridging ties don't have to be weak ties > Benefits: Information benefit (access to diverse info) + Control benefit (ability to influence outcome) 3. Six Degrees of Separation Origin: Milgram’s “small world problem” (1969) Everyone is connected by ~6 intermediaries Updated Research: On Facebook → average connection is reduced to 3.57 degrees 4. Social Capital Definition: resources/benefits gained through social networks and participation > Individual level - information, mutual help, reciprocity > Societal level - civic norms, cooperation, social solidarity  Consequences of High Social Capital: improved employment, academic performance, health, reduced crime, economic growth, etc. Sociology of Organizations 1. Definition: social networks with…. Common purpose + defined boundaries (members VS outsiders) 2. Max Weber’s Bureaucracy - characteristics A clear hierarchy of authority + written rules of procedure + full-time/salaried officials Expansion is inevitable in modern societies 3. Organizational Culture & Structure Culture: shared beliefs/behaviors Structure: distribution of power/authority Mutually constitutive relationship 4. Institutional Isomorphism (DiMaggio & Powell 1983) Organizations evolve to resemble others facing similar conditions Mechanisms of Organizational Isomorphism: > Coercive Isomorphism: External pressures (e.g. legal, political) > Mimetic Isomorphism: copying successful models > Normative Isomorphism: professional norms and standards TEXTBOOK: Conformity: groups significantly influence individual behavior; as demonstrated by Solomon Asch’s experiments on group pressure In-Groups VS Out-Groups > in groups: dominant or majority groups > out-groups: less powerful or stigmatized groups Reference Groups: help individuals understand their social position relative to others Lecture 9: Social stratification and inequality Key Concepts Inequality: unequal distribution of resources (income, wealth, opportunities) among social groups + trends in inequality are significant for sociological study Social Stratification: hierarchical organization of society into groups with varying economic resources, prestige and power + not merely about individual differences; reflects societal characteristics that produce inequality Theoretical Perspectives on Inequality 1. Jean-Jacques Rousseau Private property is the cause of inequality + Inequality is a catalyst for social conflict Rejected the Enlightenment belief in human progress through science and technology 2. Later Enlightenment Thinkers Inequality is a consequence of private property, private property is a consequence of surplus View inequality as a necessary incentive for hard work and economic growth 3. Georg Hegel  Optimistic about historical progression towards equality; sees persistent inequality as remnants of nature Leading to freedom and equality Forms of Stratification Caste System: religion-based, closed hierarchical system (e.g. Indian caste system) Class System: economically based, characterized by oppositional groups (bourgeoisie VS proletariat) Status Hierarchy: based on social prestige, determined by lifestyle and occupation (Max Weber) Economic Inequality in the USA Gini index: measures income inequality; 0 (perfect inequality) to 1 (perfect inequality) > The US has the highest income inequality among developed nations Poverty Rates: A high prevalence of poverty exists despite national wealth; relative poverty captures those living on less than half the median income Global Inequality Inequality exists within a society/country + among countries across the world Definition: unequal distribution of economic resources globally; visible in wealth disparities Low-income countries: concentrated in areas facing high disease rates and low-quality education > Absolute poverty = lack of access to basic needs e.g. food, clean water > Relative poverty = living on less than half the median income Theories of Global Inequality (why are some countries so rich and others poor?) > Conventional view: global inequalities emerged through colonialism (colonizers VS colonized) > TWO major explanations 1. Geography hypothesis: emphasize the force of nature (geography, crops, animals, latitude) - The climate is an important determinant of work effort, incentives, productivity - Geography may determine the technology a society develops - Global South’s poverty is caused by infectious disease, more prevalent in tropics 2. Institution hypothesis: focuses on man-made influences (institutions, politics, policies) - Enforcement of private property → Individuals have incentives to invest and participate in economic life - Constraints on the actions of powerful groups → so they can’t exploit the incomes/investments of others - Equal opportunity for broad segments of society → People can invest in human capital and participate in productive economic activities Social Reproduction VS Social Mobility Social Mobility: degree of openness in a society’s hierarchical system/ potential for individuals to change social status within a society > Intra-generational: changes within an individual's lifetime - Horizontal mobility - changes their occupation but social standing unchanged) - Vertical mobility - upward or downward > Inter-generational: changes in social status between generations Mobility Analysis Methods: > Mobility tables: examine relationships and structural mobility, mobility caused by changes in labour markets and the economy > Status attainment model: focus on education and socioeconomic background Relationship Between Inequality and Social Mobility Higher income inequality correlates with lower intergenerational social mobility  → factors influencing this relationship include 1. Class-based child-rearing practices 2. Class-based neighborhood 3. Legacy college admissions Lecture 10: Family and modern society Sociological imagination and the family Common misconceptions about family: > singular family type prevails > family has existed for a long time (in the form as we know) > family is a haven in a heartless world, sanctuary where individual is protected from danger > family is a sort of sacred thing and is independent from the secular world Family embedded in many social contexts > family (as a social institution) is changing > structure of the family is affected by social forces in the economy, culture, policies Families as agents of social change > changing family norms, values, practices, behaviors catalyze social change Defining the family No single definition; conceptualized as multidimensional > personal family: based on individual understanding (e.g. friends, pets) > legal family: related by birth, marriage, adoption > family as social institution: where family matters occur Family interactions > occupied roles (mother, father, child) fulfilling functions (intimacy, childrearing) > interactions with other institutions: - State: Law (ex marriage license, birth certificate), welfare - Market: Labor market, private day care - Family: intimacy, reproduction and socialization, caring work Changing and variety in family forms The family in the Western world today > Historical Context: - Post-WWI nuclear family model = male breadwinner, female homemaker - Modern families depicted in “Modern Family” = nuclear, blended, same-sex > Diversity in Family Arrangements: increased in varied living arrangements for children in the US (1960 vs 2015) Historical divide between public and private spheres > traditional family model (male breadwinner + female homemaker) viewed as normal > nuclear family model specific to early to mid-20th century > Cult of domesticity: Gender ideology focusing on women’s domestic roles Women’s labour market participation and the “second shift” problem > women’s dual responsibilities in work and home → paid work and non-paid housework Family change in East Asia  Recent trends in Asia (China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan) 1. Shrinking birth rates > all East Asian countries experiences rapid decline in total fertility rate > mean age at first birth has dramatically increased 2. Rising childlessness > population decline is an existential threat in Japan (aging population) 3. Later marriage > steady increase in age at first marriage is universal in East Asian societies Theoretical Frameworks to explain these trends > Second Demographic Transition: attitudinal changes affecting marriage and fertility > Gender Equity Theory: Tension between women’s labor opportunities and family obligations > Economic Stagnation: Macroeconomic factors influencing family behaviors Lecture 11: Gender and gender inequality Seeing SEX and GENDER as SOCIAL 1. Understanding Sex and Gender as Social Constructs Sex: biological distinctions (chromosomes, hormones, reproductive organs) > not purely binary (M or F); includes intersex individuals Gender: social and behavioral characteristics attributed to M and F > more fluid and constructed than commonly perceive Theories of gender inequality 1. Feminism (men and women should be accorded equal opp. and respect) Originated from suffrage and property rights movements (1st wave) Expanded to issues like reproductive rights and workplace gender gaps (2nd wave) 2. Talcott Parson’s sex role theory Structural functionalism: men as breadwinners, women as homemakers BUT if traditional sex roles were so functional, WHY did they change over the years? Criticized for being based on 1950s middle-class norms + justifying gender inequalities 3. Conflict theories Capitalism and patriarchy’s roles in economic dependence of women Highlights economic disadvantages women face in the job market → capitalists (predominantly men) reap all benefits of women’s subordination 4. “Doing gender”: interactionist theories Gender as performance in daily interactions RATHER than innate West and Zimmerman’s definition of gender as a social construct → emerges from an interaction or social situation (perform masculinity or femininity) 5. Intersectionality theory How gender intersects with race, class, and other identities that leads to disadvantages Recognizes diverse experiences and disadvantages among women → “matrix of domination” e.g. domestic female helper in HK from Philippines Gender Stratification Definition: unequal distribution of income, wealth, power, privilege across genders Labour Market inequalities  > persistent gender gaps in earnings and occupational segregation > women often in “pink-collar” jobs (services/care professions) Mechanisms of Gender Inequality > Glass ceiling: invisible barriers preventing women’s advancements to top levels of org. > Glass Escalator: men’s accelerated promotions in feminized professions e.g. nursing Lecture 12: Race and Ethnicity Seeing RACE as SOCIAL Understanding Race as Social > race as social construct: - Rigid definitions no longer accepted in SS - Race is culturally created, NOT solely genetic - Evolution of “whiteness” (e.g. Irish immigrants in the USA) - Fluidity of racial classifications (changes overtime) 1. Historical Context of Race Over 50 classifications in the past Irish immigrants not considered “white” until mid 20th century → faced anti-Irish sentiment during mass immigration 2. Racism and Its Beliefs Definition of racism: beliefs that different races possess unequal traits Core beliefs: - Humans can be divided by bloodlines/physical types - Traits linked to culture, behavior, intelligence - Some groups are superior to others Radicalization Examples - Polish migrants in the UK NOT viewed as white - Burakumin in Japan are socially marginalized despite no genetic differences 3. Racial Fluidity Race can be flexible & impermanent → by self-identification or external classification Social status impacts perception of race (e.g. unemployment, poverty) Race VS Ethnicity Race: externally imposed, involuntary, based on physical differences + hierarchical exclusive Ethnicity: self-defined, voluntary, based on cultural identity (language, religion, customs) + non-hierarchical and fluid Prejudice, Stereotypes, Discrimination and the New Racism 1. Prejudice and Discrimination Prejudice: emotional bias towards racial/ethnic group Stereotypes: assumptions based on group membership (can be negative or positive) Discrimination: harmful actions against a specific racial group (behavior NOT just mere thoughts) 2. New Forms of Racism Color-blind racism - old kind of obvious racism has declined - Claims to ignore race and treat all equally - Perpetuates discrimination by ignoring historical contexts and systematic inequalities