Airport Planning, Operations and Management Training PDF

# Airport Planning, Operations and Management Training ## Airport Operations - Welcome to the exciting world of airport operations! In a rapidly changing environment, airports have to adapt to economic downturns, new security risks technological changes, market changes, changing airline concepts,...

# Airport Planning, Operations and Management Training ## Airport Operations - Welcome to the exciting world of airport operations! In a rapidly changing environment, airports have to adapt to economic downturns, new security risks technological changes, market changes, changing airline concepts, and the worldwide trend to convert airports from government organizations to more business-like entities. These pressures have or have had or are having significant effects on the way airports do business, not only from a financial perspective but also from an operational standpoint. - In these challenging times, and with increasing competition from other airports and other modes of transportation, it is of the utmost importance that airports recruit and provide employees and managers with the best available knowledge and skills. This course was prepared to provide you with a solid overview of the airport operations field and with tools to apply your knowledge and skills to your airport. It is designed to be useful not only for your own benefit but also to help you make better decisions for your organization. For writing purposes, the text assumes the reader works in an airport environment. However, this textbook is intended for all people who have an interest in airports, whether they are currently working at an airport, are planning to do so, or simply have a personal interest in this area. ## Course Structure To help you successfully complete and enjoy the course, we have structured the content into eight modules. Each module has the following features. ### Module Overview At the beginning of each module you will see an introduction that provides an overview of the content of the modules. ### Module Each module is made up of one or several units, and each unit includes the following. ### Unit Overview Each unit begins with an overview of the topics to be covered. ### Units Each unit covers a specific subject. ### Study Checks Throughout the text, there are short exercises, made up of multiple choice, short answers, or matching questions. These are designed to provide you with the opportunity to see if you understood the material. An Answer Key is provided at the end of each module so that you can check your responses. ### Unit Summary Each unit ends with a summary drawing together the main points of each unit. ### Apply Your Learning This section follows the Module Summary in some of the modules and provides you with the opportunity to apply what you have learned within your own context. You will get the most from this course if you make the effort to complete these exercises. ### Key Learning Points Key Learning Points are highlighted throughout the text and are designed to emphasize particularly important issues and conclusions. ### Glossary At the end of the course, there is a "GLOSSARY" section, which explains the most important terms used throughout the modules. The words that are in italics throughout the text are defined in the glossary. ### Recommended Reading & Websites Should you wish to further research a given topic, a list of recommended readings is included at the end of this manual, as well as a list of websites you can visit. Additional IATA Courses related to Airport Operations: - A-CDM in Airport and Ground Operations www.iata.org/training-TAPG61 - Aircraft De-icing Operations Management www.iata.org/training-TAPG02 - Aircraft Marshalling and Ramp Hand Signals - eLearning www.iata.org/training-TALP58 - Airport Command and Control - Smart AOCC www.iata.org/training-TAPG69 - Airport Emergency Response Awareness - eLearning www.iata.org/training-TALP56 - Airport Operations Advanced www.iata.org/training-TAPP09 - Airport Safety Management Systems www.iata.org/training-TAPP10 - Airside Safety Management & Compliance www.iata.org/training-TALP07 - Baggage Handling Services and Systems www.iata.org/training-TAPG09 - Basic Airside Safety (eLearning) www.iata.org/training-TALP17 - Crisis Communications & Media Response for Airport Managers www.iata.org/training-TAPP39 - Emergency Planning and Response for Airports and GSPs www.iata.org/training-TAPP12 - NOTAM Origination for Airports www.iata.org/training-TAPP63 For a complete list of related courses please visit: www.iata.org/APT. ## Module Introduction Before starting to learn about the detailed functions of airport operations, it is essential that you acquire a broad knowledge of how aviation and airports were born and how they developed. You also need to understand the complexity of the airport environment, as well as the relationships between the various players involved. Regardless of their size and complexity, airports operate in a highly regulated environment, they serve a wide variety of customers with sometimes conflicting needs, they receive services from many external providers, and they generate both positive and negative impacts on the community they serve. Their activities extend well beyond their property boundaries. Finally, yet importantly, they can be highly sensitive to social, economic, environmental, technological, and political influences. In response to rapid and radical changes in the air transport industry, airports must constantly adapt and foresee these changes. Adopting a business approach allows airports to better serve their customers, in a safe, efficient and economical manner. ## 1.1 The Airside Area - Describe the need for air transportation - List the main providers of air transportation - Describe the history of aviation and airports - Describe the changes of an airport through the history of aviation - Identify the factors that generate technological changes in airports - List the three areas of an airport ### 1.1.0 Unit Overview Air transportation is a huge industry. Its services are provided by several components with a strong international dimension. In order for the system to meet the needs of its customers, there is a strong requirement for cooperation between all organizations involved. After only a century of existence, aviation reached unprecedented levels of activity and sophistication. Today’s industry bears no resemblance with what it was only fifty years ago. Technological advances in aircraft design changed the face of this industry from wooden to supersonic airliners in a matter of decades. The same happened to terminal equipment, IT systems or how to construct infrastructure. Airports had to adapt to this fast-changing reality by providing facilities and services keeping pace with the progresses of its customers (which are the airlines itself and their passengers with their various specific demands). In spite of several recent setbacks in the air transportation industry, it is recovering, and experts predict that passenger volumes should double within the next twenty years. It will be caused by economic growth, the increase in disposable income, the increasing spread of low-cost products the increased efficiency and productivity (i.e. passengers per flight) of new aircraft, the intensification of international trade, and the liberalization of air transportation. This will put even greater pressure on airports to keep pace with this level, diversification, and requirements of demand. ### 1.1.1 The Importance of the Air Transportation Industry Before Covid-19 pandemic, on a DAILY basis, 12 million travelers were transported safely by air. Similarly, 180,000 tonnes of cargo were delivered by air. Nearly three million people earn their keep by working in the industry. About a third of global trade by value relies on air-that’s $20 billion a day In total, before the pandemic 4.5 billion Passengers carried, 2019. At the time of editing of this study book, aviation industry is trying to beat this crisis and reconnect our world. Air transport is at the heart of global economic growth. It creates employment, facilitates trade, enables tourism and supports sustainable development all around the world. You can always find the most up-to-date figures about air transport at www.iata.org/economics ### 1.1.2 The Need for Air Transportation People want to or often have to travel rapidly and safely between two points. Because of distances, accessibility of regions, time pressure or simple lack of alternatives, Air Transport is often the only available mode of transport. Moreover, Air Transport also serves people who need to ship goods that must arrive at destination as quickly as possible, because either they are needed urgently, or they are perishables of high value, or a combination of these factors. ### 1.1.3 The Providers of Air Transportation Services Air transportation is provided by the cooperation of airlines, airports, air traffic control agencies and many other support organizations. Its success depends on a coordinated approach between these players. If any of the partners delivering operational services at an airport fail or slow down or change procedures without caring for the interfaces, the whole system and consequently the final product for the customer will fail. The single most important thing that you must keep in mind in your day-to-day work is that air transport is a service activity with one focus: the customer. ### 1.1.4 History of Aviation and Airports Aviation is a relatively new Industry: the first sustained, controlled and powered flight took place only a bit more than a century ago. On December 17, 1903, Orville Wright flew his wood and fabric aircraft for 12 seconds over a 37-meter distance, operating from a sandy strip (Figure 1.1.4.a). This strip in North Carolina, U.S.A. was probably indistinguishable from other surrounding areas but it can be considered as the first airport. In spite of its extremely basic characteristics, it met the very simple needs of the day. The first known official airports date back to 1909. As flight became more common and as the number of airplanes increased, so did the number of airports. They were still open fields but they included minimum facilities allowing airplanes to take off and land, to be parked, fueled and repaired. These are the basic aeronautical functions of an airport, even today. During World War I (1914 to 1918), it became apparent by countries involved in this conflict that aircraft could play an important role in warfare and national defense. As a result, this period saw the production of the first combat aircraft and the construction of many military airports. Following the war, some of these military airports remained operational and were converted to civil use. This is how the early national airport systems were created. Initially a local responsibility, after World War I airport development became a mix of military, commercial, and private responsibilities. One of the most obvious and attractive benefits of flying, besides the simple thrill of no longer being restricted to the earth’s surface, was the possibility of carrying mail at several times the speed of a train. As a result, in 1918, the first intercity air mail service was established. At the same time, communities discovered the importance of airports to connect them to the rest of the country. By 1925 some airmail transport was contracted out to private aircraft operators: this was the birth of the airline industry. Between 1925 and 1940, air transportation grew steadily in several countries. In 1940, with the outbreak of World War II, countries involved in this conflict constructed large numbers of air bases, some of them being planned so as to be useful to civil aviation after the war. By the end of World War II in 1945, several countries had a surplus of air bases, owned many surplus transport aircraft and had qualified aircrews available: all the ingredients for a full-fledged air transport industry were present. This is when air transportation really started to grow worldwide (Figure 1.1.4.b). The period after 1950 was characterized by major steps in the improvement of safety, propulsion technology and aircraft systems. At the same time, aircraft range also increased substantially, creating a truly worldwide network of connections. The introduction and ever wider application of the jet engine brought new possibilities in terms or reliability and available power. Propeller airliners were severely limited in speed and this was completely eliminated by subsequent generations of jet engines. The early pure jets were followed by turbojets and the high-bypass ratio jet engines which allowed aircraft size to increase substantially while noise and fuel consumption was reduced. The appearance of wide-body aircraft, like the Boeing 747, created a completely new paradigm for long-range travel. Flying was suddenly open to the masses. Aircraft systems developed in parallel with the engines. Increased automation in the cockpit resulted in the flight crew members being reduced from initially 5 (captain, copilot, flight engineer, navigator, radio operator) to 2 (captain and first officer) without compromising safety. Another major change came when twin-engine aircraft replaced most of the four-engine types. It represented a quantum improvement in efficiency, once again making flying more affordable for the general public. This trend is still continuing and has been expedited by the COVID-19 pandemic during 2020-2021. ### 1.1.5 Present and Future The ever-increasing number of flights globally and number of passengers on each aircraft has poses a major challenge to the airports serving the surging traffic. Longer runways, wider taxiways, electronic instruments for all weather operations, bigger terminals and improved access to the airports require major investment from the airport owners and operators. Moreover, the introduction of tougher security screening requirements is especially difficult to accommodate in view of the large space such facilities required. Airlines are putting ever more pressure on the airports to keep costs low. Airports in turn started to look for additional revenue sources. This was found in turning the terminals into shopping malls. Other non-aeronautical revenue came in the form of car parking facilities and associated paid services e.g. car cleaning etc. Some airports actually have more revenue from such sources than from aircraft operations, i.e. aeronautical revenue. While in the early days of aviation airports were "far" from each other, in modern days airports a few hundred kilometers apart from each other are actually "near" and as such find themselves competing for traffic and passengers. This has altered the attitude of airports and they swiftly turned themselves from monopolies into competition sensitive enterprises for the benefit of passengers and airlines alike. With the increasing number of flights and the ever-larger engines, aviation’s impact on the environment is being raised more and more. New engine types are substantially more environment friendly than their older kin, but this is offset by their ever-increasing numbers. Aviation did rise to the challenge and development of Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF) has started. The use of electric propulsion as well as the use of hydrogen as fuel are also being studied\. The road to zero emission aviation will be a long one but that aim is a realistic one without a doubt. ### 1.1.6 Statistics and Forecasts The number of passengers traveling by air increased from nine million in 1945 to 4.6 billion in 2019. In the same year, 61.2 million tonnes of cargo were carried. The Covid-19 pandemic has had a negative impact on aviation everywhere that has never been seen before. Recovery has now started, with medium to short range traffic leading the recovery. Long range flying is still very much lagging behind. Although it is impossible to state concrete numbers concerning the speed of the recovery, most experts agree that the originally forecast traffic figures will be achieved but with a delay of 2-3 years. Based on IATA World Air Transport Statistics (WATS) performance figures for 2020 demonstrate the devastating effects on global air transport during that year of the COVID-19 crisis. - 1.8 billion passengers flew in 2020, a decrease of 60.2% compared to the 4.6 billion who flew in 2019 - Industry-wide air travel demand (measured in revenue passenger-kilometers, or RPKs) dropped by 65.9% year-on-year - International passenger demand (RPKs) decreased by 75.6% compared to the year prior - Domestic air passenger demand (RPKs) dropped by 48.8% compared to 2019 - Air connectivity declined by more than half in 2020 with the number of routes connecting airports falling dramatically at the outset of the crisis and was down more than 60% year-on-year in April 2020 - The decline in air passengers transported in 2020 was the largest recorded since global RPKs started being tracked around 1950 ### 1.1.7 Protection of Environment Protection of the environment became a major concern in the 1960s. More specifically, water, air and soil pollution were of concern on airports along with the impact of aircraft noise on people living near airports. Airports are industrial organizations that generate waste such as oil, fuel, hydraulic fluid, sanitary sewage, and de-icing chemicals. Positive steps were taken to reduce the effect of airport operations on the natural and human environment. Airports implemented technological improvements like fuel and oil separators and recovery systems for spent de-icing chemicals. With the advent of the jet age, aircraft noise became a major issue for residents living near busy airports, especially those with frequent night traffic. Several aircraft engine improvements have been implemented to reduce noise at the source, supplemented by airport fee structures that encourage the use of less noisy and less polluting engines. Furthermore, operational procedures called noise-abatement procedures have been implemented, guiding airplanes whenever possible over scarcely populated or non-residential areas when flying low to / from airports. In 2009 the air transport sector made history when it became the first industry anywhere to commit to cutting carbon emissions on a global scale. The far-sighted agreement called for CO2 emissions to be slashed to half of 2005 levels by 2050. Research shows that getting to net zero emissions is also achievable by the 2060s. Some regions could reach that point even earlier. The 2009 commitment had three clear goals - to increase fuel efficiency by 1.5% every year between 2010-20, cap carbon emissions (carbon neutral growth) from 2020, and achieve the 50% emissions reduction by the middle of the century. To get there required work across distinct pillars of action - - technology - sustainable aviation fuel - more efficient flight operations - infrastructure improvements on the ground - carbon offsets. The mechanism for ensuring carbon neutral growth, known as CORSIA, started as a pilot scheme in 2021 with almost 100 countries participating and the rest due to come on board by 2027 ### 1.1.8 Technological Advancements-Overview In general terms, "technology" means the application of science to industrial uses. In this textbook, we will use this word as meaning the various physical components that make up the overall aviation infrastructure and that allows airports, airlines, air traffic control agencies and other service and operational authorities (like immigration or customs) to move people and goods by air, safely and efficiently. Aviation technology constantly evolves to meet the changing needs of its customers. Technological changes are generated by the following factors: safety, security, reliability, efficiency, and protection of the environment. In the following paragraphs, you will learn about technological advancements that affect airports. These will also be explained in detail in the modules that follow. ## Airside Refer to Figure 1.1.8 throughout this section. In the early days of aviation, aircraft were light, slow and operated in good meteorological conditions (Visual Meteorological Conditions or VMC). They could operate out of grass strips and a small hangar was the only ground facility required. As aircraft became faster and heavier and as the need for reliability increased, hard surface runways had to be constructed. Later on, these runways were equipped with edge lighting to allow flights to operate in reduced visibility conditions or at night. As the characteristics of aircraft became increasingly demanding", airports had to construct longer and wider runways, along with higher pavement strength. As the density of traffic increased, especially on and around airports, some sort of order had to be instituted to keep flying safe. Air Traffic Control was created, with the responsibility to prevent collisions between aircraft on the ground and in the air, and to provide a smooth flow of traffic. The first Air Traffic Control facility was the Control Tower. With Air Traffic Control came the need for radio communication between pilots and air traffic controllers. To that effect, radio transmitters and receivers were installed at airports and on-board aircraft. Flying under Visual Meteorological Conditions brings about severe limitations to the reliability of air transport: when meteorological conditions fall below prescribed limits, it becomes dangerous and eventually impossible to fly by visual reference to the ground. A new way of flying aircraft had to be devised: it was called Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). Under these rules, pilots do not fly their aircraft by visual reference to the ground, nor do they maintain adequate separation from other aircraft visually. Instead, they fly along well-determined air routes, called Airways. Airways are defined by ground-based radio beacons. In-flight separation is ensured by a central air traffic control facility that keeps aircraft apart vertically and/or longitudinally. Such facility is called Area Control Centre (ACC) for en-route traffic or Approach Control unit (APP) for traffic operating near airports. The main tools are radio-communication and surveillance radar. Flying under the Instrument Flight Rules made flying safer and more reliable. Today, commercial aircraft normally fly IFR. When flying IFR, pilots need guidance during the final phase of the flight, when approaching the landing runway. Various electronic systems provide such guidance, coupled with visual systems such as approach lights. The most common electronic system guiding pilots to the runway is the Instrument Landing System (ILS). In modern times, the majority of commercial aircraft navigate using their own electronic instruments (called avionics). Airways and ground-based navigation are being replaced by satellite-based area navigation. The intention is for each aircraft to fly along an individual optimum trajectory. This way each flight achieves the shortest possible flight time, with reduced fuel burn and emissions. ## Terminals The terminal building is the place where passengers, luggage and freight change between the surface mode and the air mode. It is a processing facility for which technological changes have been constant and profound. While the first terminal buildings were designed only to protect passengers and employees from the elements, modern terminals are sophisticated infrastructures with almost unlimited amenities. Much of the improvements revolved around security, efficiency and comfort. Large terminals often provide moving sidewalks to reduce walking distance. Computerized ticketing and check-in procedures have become common to speed up the process and reduce congestion. Automated baggage sorting equipment expedites baggage processing and reduces the risk of misdirected baggage. Aviation security did not become an issue until the 1960s, when the first threats against civil aviation were made. Up until that time, it was customary for airports to allow public access near aircraft, with only minimum pre-boarding control: search of passengers was unheard of and baggage screening was unnecessary. As security became more important, states implemented measures to prevent unlawful interference with aviation: fencing of airports, restricted access to aircraft, and screening of passengers, baggage, employees and cargo. Initially a manual operation, passenger screening now relies on state-of-the-art technology such as metal-and/or explosives detectors, machine-readable passports and biometric recognition equipment. ## Landside Nearly every air trip starts and ends with a car, bus or train ride. However, not all rides are made by passengers: visitors come to the airport to meet or greet passengers, employees come to work, and delivery and service vehicles can be numerous. These vehicles require an efficient road network, adequate road signage and parking facilities, and a good connection to the outside highway network. Roadway and parking congestion can be a major cause of disruption and delay. Technological improvements to alleviate this problem include dedicated rail links between the city and the airport; use of intra-airport automated people movers and automated pay equipment in parking lots. ## 1.2 Airport Definition, Function, Customers and Partners - Describe the different definitions of the word "airport" - Describe the key function of an airport - List the main airport customers - Describe the key functions of airport partners and customers ### 1.2.0 Unit Overview Early airports had only very basic functions, designed at meeting the simple needs of early flyers. As air transportation evolved, airports became more complex entities, linking communities together through an inter-modal system. Airports provide facilities and services to many organizations involved in air transportation. These agencies play different roles with sometimes conflicting objectives. In addition to direct customers, airports need to deal with a number of external partners, who in spite of their remoteness play an important role in the success of the airport. In the introduction to this module, you learned that the air transport industry was composed of several partners who must work as a team to achieve success. You will now learn more details about this topic. ### 1.2.1 What Is an Airport? In the early days of aviation, the main functions of an airport were to provide for the landing, taking off, parking, fueling and repairing of aircraft. Although this statement is still correct today, the air transportation industry has evolved so much that we need to have a closer look at this definition. Ask yourself the following apparently simple question: "What is an airport"? Take a minute or so to think about it. Did you find a satisfactory answer? Most people cannot. Although we intuitively know what it is and what it looks like, it can be difficult to make a proper definition. Surprisingly enough, there is no official definition of the word "Airport". The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) uses the term "aerodrome". For all intents and purposes, the two terms refer to the same type of facility, even if "airport" is often used to designate the operational part while "aerodrome" refers to the terminals and associated elements. Let us start from the obvious and work up toward a more comprehensive definition. Starting from the statement in the first paragraph of this unit, we can see that it addresses aircraft operations only. However, remember that the landside aspect of airports is as important as its airside. If you have ever used an airport, either as a passenger or a visitor, ask yourself the following question: how did I reach the airport? Most likely, you arrived by some kind of surface transportation such as a private car, a taxicab, or a bus, even maybe a train. As an arriving passenger, the process would be reversed and you would arrive by air and leave the airport by surface transportation. From the above statement, we can formulate the following definition: An airport is a facility where a transfer is made between the surface mode and the air mode. This definition introduces the concept of inter-modal processing. The only exception to this statement is a situation whereby you would arrive by air and connect to another flight without leaving the airport. Let us expand our investigation of the word airport. How do marketing people view an airport? It is a commercial enterprise whose mission is to provide passengers and shippers with facilities and services that meet their needs. This definition introduces the concept of customer needs and market. Finally, economists and politicians view it as a business center with important local and regional economic benefits. This definition introduces the concept of external benefits. Which of the above definitions should you remember? All of them. They are all valid and they apply to all airports to some degree. From simple airfields, airports have become complex centers linking communities and countries together. Their main function is to provide an interface between the surface mode and the air mode. ### 1.2.2 Airport as a System If you ever visited an airport, you will have seen the varied and complex interactions that surround you everywhere throughout your journey crossing the terminal. Once seated in your plane, a look outside will once again reveal the finely tuned and choreographed multitude of activities, all aimed to ensure an on-time departure of the flight. Although aircraft look very similar to each other, after all we are still in the age of the tubes with wings type of flying machines, their needs are rather varied. Add to this the fact that aircraft operate to a schedule and any divergence will be seen as a failure of the system… System? What system? The definition of system is a "set of things working together as parts of a mechanism, a complex whole". Another definition says that a system is a "set of principles or procedures according to which something is done, an organized scheme or method." An airport is all of those things, and then some. Take a simple example. Catering. From simple lunch boxes to elaborate business class menus, from for-sale snacks to freshly brewed coffee, the variety of fare being offered is incredibly large. This is true even if catering is being simplified these days. To the basic offerings you can add special requests from passengers to complicate things even more. The fare must be prepared and delivered to the right aircraft at the right time... even if it is late or its originally assigned gate has changed. Things actually start much earlier when the airline and the catering outfit come together to agree the kind of menu that will be offered in the coming season. One of the miracles of the food industry is the way airline meals are prepared, so that they remain fresh and appetizing even after reheating. Not many people ever get to see the usually nondescript building lurking somewhere on the airport which houses the catering operation. Each airline has its own prescription, often varying with the flights involved with the day’s schedule and most airports serve 20 or more airlines, each with its own idea of on-board catering. Clearly, catering fits the definition of "things working together as part of a complex whole" But of course, passengers are not the only ones who need to be fed. Aircraft need fuel to operate, too. The fuel supply to aircraft passing through an airport is in the hands of specialized companies. There are various ways of quenching the thirst of aircraft, from large fuel bowsers to underground pipelines and mobile pumping trucks filling the tanks while the plane is parked at the gate. Things are complicated not only by the different size of the planes, but also by their differing needs depending on the length of the flight they are about to undertake and the loads they will be carrying. The fueling experts are told how much to pump into each machine and they have to follow this requirement to the letter. Too much fuel on board costs money needlessly, too little and they do not reach their destination. Precision work at its best. Fueling is a good example of "a set of procedures according to which something is done...". You may ask, what kind of system is the airport? Well, it is a system built on the principle of constant input and output. On the one side, there is a constant input of passengers (departure side) coupled to a constant output of departing aircraft. On the other side, there is a constant input of arriving aircraft, coupled to a constant output of passengers. This output is of two kinds, destination output and transfer output. If you think about it, it will be clear that this principle requires that the airport system work flawlessly, otherwise there is an almost immediate clogging up of the input-output flow. When you read that an airport was designed to cater for 10 million passengers a year, this must be understood to mean a, input-output flow of a specific number per hour, adding up to 10 million per year. If the flow is disrupted, the design capacity becomes meaningless. This is why airports are so keen to return to normal operations as soon as possible after an event that has disrupted the input-output flow. A terminal choking with stranded passengers or aircraft waiting endlessly for a gate to become available is the nightmare of every airport. Yes, an airport is a system, operating on a defined principle, with all the advantages and shortcomings of that principle. But, let’s admit, that principle works pretty well most of the time. ### 1.2.3 Airport as Part of the Network The term "network" is a very popular one these days. We have all heard of computer networks, legacy airlines are often referred to as network carriers, but the telephone network is an example of just how long we have been referring to networks... But what is a network? There are several definitions, some simpler than others. Perhaps the easiest to understand is the following: A network is a group or system of interconnected people or things. This definition does not say much about why those people or things are interconnected to form a network. Let’s just say that they have their reasons. Hence, we can expand the definition something like this: A network is created to generate benefits for the interconnected people or things. To look at this in an aviation context, we can start by considering what airlines are doing. Most of them operate a network of flights in order to offer transportation to passengers. The flights form a network, since they are interconnected so that passengers can get from A to B either directly or via using several segments of the network. Why are airlines operating this network? To earn money, of course. In order to understand the place of airports in this network story, we need to consider another network, namely the air traffic management (ATM) network. This network is built from the various units controlling air traffic, the tools they use like radar and satellites and of course the airspace in which all this takes place. This network is needed to ensure that traffic flows in a safe and orderly manner… a police in the sky if you want. The purpose of the air traffic management network is to ensure safety and efficiency. Of course at the end of the day, they too enable the airlines to earn money. Without ATM, there would be chaos. Enter the airports... There is this lovely saying that a mile of highway can take you a mile. A mile of runway can take you anywhere in the world. Well, runways are an integral part of airports with every flight starting an ending on a runway. Of course, there is much more to an airport than just a runway. Aircraft on the ground unload and load passengers and cargo, get serviced, park when they do not fly for any reason… Whichever way we look at it, the airport is part of the networks of the airlines but also part of the ATM network. After all, the airport is the place where airlines want to be and to where ATM is guiding aircraft. The airport is a node where the airlines networks and the ATM network intersect, profoundly influencing each other. The airport is a wonderful example of how big the interaction is between the airline networks and the ATM network. If the ATM network is running at capacity (there are more aircraft wanting to fly than the ability of ATM to handle them), aircraft will be forced to wait on the ground until there is enough space for them to launch on their journey. If there are more aircraft wanting to land at an airport than what it can handle, arriving aircraft will be forced to wait in the air, consuming fuel and possibly making their passenger miss their connecting flights. If the number of departing aircraft exceeds the number and airport can handle, aircraft will be queuing at the runway, again consuming fuel and possibly impacting the airline network (delays can disrupt the carefully balanced airline operation) while ATM will also be on edge, since their plan for handling those departures goes down the drain and they need to replan everything. But the airports themselves also form a network. Their operating characteristics, like night curfews, noise abatement procedures, operating hour constraints, aircraft handling capabilities and a million other considerations profoundly impact the airline network and the ATM network. What is more, those airport characteristics are not easy to change (read improve) and hence the combined capabilities of the airports determine what is possible and what is not at any given moment of the day, year, month or year. Keep in mind that every flight will be concerned with at least three airports... Three? Yes! Departure, arrival and alternate. This last is where the pilot hopes to put down if the original destination becomes unsuitable (for instance because of weather). So, at the minimum we are faced with a network of 3 airports, but then they themselves are again part of another flight’s trio and so on. Normally, those interconnected networks and their constituent elements work well. When they fail to do so, you will find yourself waiting for your flight to arrive, depart or just make a small move on the taxiway as you peer out the window. Next time you see something like that, you can start thinking which part of the network is acting up… ### 1.2.4 Airlines Customers Airlines are the most visible and important customers of the airport. They also are a major source of revenues for the airport operator accounting typically for approximately fifty percent of operating revenues. In order to cater to their passengers and freight, airlines need many facilities, normally provided and maintained by the airport: runways, approach aids, taxiways, aprons, gates and many areas of the terminal building (check-in/ticketing area, hold rooms, office space, baggage processing rooms), they use electricity, water and telephone The interrelationships between the airport and airlines are complex. As airports serve the airlines’ customers: the passenger, both airports and airlines are also operating partners which have to synchronize their activities, services and products towards their joint ultimate customer. Their respective operational interests sometimes also strongly conflict: for example, airlines want to concentrate their flights at specific times of the day to meet passengers’ needs, thereby creating traffic peaks. This puts pressure on the airport to provide the required capacity, which may be unused during off-peak periods. The airport, on the other hand, would like to spread traffic throughout the day to make more efficient use of its facilities and avoid additional investments. So the airport is in the difficult position to a) treat their airlines as valued customers and b) cooperate in operating "harmony” despite such inherent conflicts. This is an everlasting difficult relationship and can only be managed by professional and transparent partnership. The airport provides airlines with facilities and services for a fee. Both organizations operate under budgetary constraints, trying to maximize revenues and minimize costs. Therefore, negotiations are common and they often translate in financial and operational compromises. Figure 1.2.4.a shows the interrelationships between the airport operator, the airlines, and the passenger. In order for both organizations to know the "rules of the game", it is customary for airports and airlines to formalize their relationship through some form of long-term written agreement. These agreements list what facilities and level of service the airport commits to provide and the fees that apply (landing charges, terminal charges, and aircraft parking charges, space- and land rent). These agreements can be amended as conditions change. ### 1.2.5 Operating Partners Many different activities and services contribute to the safe and efficient journey. For this there are several operating partners at an airport. They, together with the airport operator form the "airport system" and offer the comprehensive logistics-and service chain for the customers. Additionally, these operating partners are customers to the airport, too, as they require offices and space, electrical and IT support and have to be treated