Structural Geology PDF

STRUCTURAL GENERAL GEOLOGY CHAPTER 1 FLORENCE T. SAMONTE GEOLOGY  STRUCTURAL Definition of Terms Importance of Structural Geology GENERAL...

STRUCTURAL GENERAL GEOLOGY CHAPTER 1 FLORENCE T. SAMONTE GEOLOGY  STRUCTURAL Definition of Terms Importance of Structural Geology GENERAL Attitude of Beds GEOLOGY Rock DeformationCHAPTER 1 Physical & Mechanical Properties of Rocks FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Geological Maps GEOLOGY  STRUCTURAL Definition of Terms FLORENCE T. SAMONTE GEOLOGY  Terminologies Structural geology - is the study of the three dimensional distribution of large bodies of rock, their surfaces, and the composition inside the rock units to learn about their tectonic movements history, past geological events and environments that could have deformed them. - is the study of the internal structure and deformation of the Earth’s crust. https://petrowiki.spe.org/Structural_geology FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  Terminologies Geologic Events - or geologic processes are natural events that occur in the Earth’s crust. These events may cause change in the physical landforms on the surface of the Earth. https://www.microblife.in/what-are-geologic-events/ Examples of Geologic Events ▪ Earthquakes ▪ Volcanic eruptions FLORENCE T. SAMONTE ▪ Tsunamis ▪ Formation of mountains ▪ landslides  Terminologies Crustal Deformation - refers to the changing of the Earth’s surface caused by tectonic forces that are accumulated in the crust and then cause earthquakes. https://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/eqproc/deformation.php - occurs when applied forces exceed the internal strength of rocks, physically changing their shapes. https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geology/Book%3A_An_Introduction_to_Geology_(Johnson_Affolter_Inkenbrandt_and_Mosher)/09%3A_Crustal_Deformation_and_Earthquakes FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  Terminologies Tectonic Forces - the energy or the movements that cause a change in the Earth's crust. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.sciencefacts.net/plate-tectonics.html  STRUCTURAL Importance of Structural Geology FLORENCE T. SAMONTE GEOLOGY  Importance of Structural Geology 1. Understanding geological history: By studying the structures present in rocks, structural geologists can decipher the deformations that occurred during the formation of rock formations. This provides insights into the geological history of an area, including the tectonic events, stress regimes, and the sequence of rock formations. 2. Resource exploration: Structural geology plays a crucial role in the exploration and exploitation of natural resources such as minerals, oil, and gas. By analyzing the structures in the subsurface, geologists can identify FLORENCE T. SAMONTE potential traps and reservoirs, determining the best locations for drilling and extraction. https://edurev.in/question/3946070/What-is-structural-geology--and-why-is-it-important-in-geological-studies-  Importance of Structural Geology 3. Earthquake and landslide studies: Structural geologists investigate the faults, fractures, and folds in rocks to understand the behavior of earthquakes and landslides. By mapping and analyzing these structures, they can assess the potential for seismic activity and landslide hazards, contributing to hazard assessments and mitigation strategies. 4. Engineering and construction: Structural geology is essential in engineering projects such as tunneling, dam construction, and building foundations. By understanding the geological structures present in an FLORENCE T. SAMONTE area, engineers can design structures that withstand potential geological hazards and ensure the stability of construction projects. https://edurev.in/question/3946070/What-is-structural-geology--and-why-is-it-important-in-geological-studies-  Importance of Structural Geology 5. Plate tectonics: The study of structures helps in understanding the movement and interaction of tectonic plates. By analyzing the distribution and orientation of structures, structural geologists can identify the boundaries between plates, determine the type of plate movement, and contribute to the overall understanding of plate tectonics. 6. Geological mapping: Structural geologists contribute to the creation of geological maps, which are essential for land management, resource FLORENCE T. SAMONTE exploration, and geological hazard assessments. These maps provide valuable information about the distribution and orientation of rocks and structures, guiding land-use planning and decision-making processes. https://edurev.in/question/3946070/What-is-structural-geology--and-why-is-it-important-in-geological-studies-  STRUCTURAL Attitude of Beds FLORENCE T. SAMONTE GEOLOGY  Terminologies Attitude of Beds - The attitude of bedrock refers to the orientation and arrangement of its structural components. These components can vary depending on the type of rock and the geological processes that have influenced its formation. https://www.studocu.com/row/document/pokhara-university/civil-engineering/attitude-of-bed-rocks-chapter-7-geology/66192424 Bed or Bedrock - is the hard, solid rock beneath surface materials such as soil and gravel. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Bedrock is consolidated rock, meaning it is solid and tightly bound. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/bedrock/  Humus is dark, organic material that forms in soil when plant and animal matter decays. Topsoil is the upper layer of soil, made mainly out of organic material. Subsoil refers to the stratum of soil immediately below the surface soil or topsoil. Weathered rock fragments consists of a layer of broken, unconsolidated rock fragments produced over hard, bedrock surfaces by weathering processes. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Bedrock refers to the hard, solid rock beneath surface materials such as soil and gravel. https://news.samsungcnt.com/features/engineering-construction/2018-04-standing-tall-story-behind-skyscraper-foundations/  Example of Soil Layers and Bedrock FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://dcenr.maps.arcgis.com/apps/MapTour/index.html?appid=7e5fa27b4c244bf3bff41a200f21bd9e  Example of Soil Layers and Bedrock FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://dcenr.maps.arcgis.com/apps/MapTour/index.html?appid=7e5fa27b4c244bf3bff41a200f21bd9e  Example of Soil Layers and Bedrock FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.groundworks.com/glossary/bedrock-load-bearing-strata/ FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.soilbook.info/soil_samples/99?lang=en Example of Soil Layers and Bedrock  Horizontal Orientation FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://sciencedrill.com/original-horizontality/  Horizontal Orientation FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/168711/view/rock-strata-in-cliff  Vertical Orientation FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://saleavtomk.life/product_details/90708129.html  Vertical Orientation FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.pinterest.com/pin/folded-rock-beds-durdle-door--659144095479247533/  Vertical Orientation FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.pinterest.com/pin/vertical-rock-layers-on-the-tibetan-plateau--320529698491154760/  Vertical Orientation FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_rocks_look_sedimentary,_but_as_the_layers_are_vertical,_they_are_probably_weathered_granite_%2837307565701%29.jpg  Tilted Orientation FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://sciencedrill.com/original-horizontality/  Tilted Orientation FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/sage/geology/lesson1/images/?C=M;O=A  Tilted Orientation FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.geologyin.com/2015/10/tilted-rock-layers.html  Tilted Orientation FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ts/2019/12/27/features-from-the-field-bedding-stratification/  Tilted Orientation FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://ukfossils.co.uk/2007/10/26/marloes-sands/tilted-layers-3/  Tilted Orientation FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.flickr.com/photos/russelljbennett/22947531343  Tilted Orientation FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Tilted_Rock_Layers_in_Nevada_-_2010-04-27.jpg  References in Defining Attitude of Geologic Features Strike Strike refers to the line formed by the intersection of a horizontal plane and an inclined surface. This line is called a strike line, and the direction the line points in (either direction, as a line points in two opposite directions) is the strike angle. Dip Dip is the angle between that horizontal plane and the inclined surface (such as a geological contact between tilted layers) FLORENCE T. SAMONTE measured perpendicular to the strike line down to the inclined surface. https://viva.pressbooks.pub/physicalgeologylab/chapter/tilted-beds-strike-dip/  Water FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://openpress.usask.ca/geolmanual/chapter/overview-of-strike-dip-and-structural-cross-sections/  Rules of Dip and Strike 1. Strike is always parallel to the bedding direction at that location. 2. The dip is always drawn perpendicular to strike in map view. It may be drawn at an angle to show perspective in a 3D block diagram. 3. The dip can be labelled with the dip angle, or only the direction can be indicated. The dip always shows which way layers are tilting into the Earth. 4. Special symbols are used for horizontal beds and vertical beds. A horizontal rock bed has a dip of 0° and a vertical rock bed has a dip of 90°. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Symbols for horizontal and vertical beds. https://viva.pressbooks.pub/physicalgeologylab/chapter/tilted-beds-strike-dip/  How to Measure Strike and Dip FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  Example of Strike and Dip 3D VIEW MAP VIEW FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://viva.pressbooks.pub/physicalgeologylab/chapter/tilted-beds-strike-dip/  Example of Strike and Dip 3D VIEW MAP VIEW FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://viva.pressbooks.pub/physicalgeologylab/chapter/tilted-beds-strike-dip/  Example of Strike and Dip 3D VIEW MAP VIEW FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://viva.pressbooks.pub/physicalgeologylab/chapter/tilted-beds-strike-dip/  Example of Strike and Dip 3D VIEW MAP VIEW FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://viva.pressbooks.pub/physicalgeologylab/chapter/tilted-beds-strike-dip/  Example of Strike and Dip 3D VIEW MAP VIEW FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://viva.pressbooks.pub/physicalgeologylab/chapter/tilted-beds-strike-dip/  Engineering significances of attitude of bed rocks Slope stability assessment The attitude of bedrock influences the stability of slopes and hillsides. Rock layers that are steeply inclined or tilted may have reduced stability and are more prone to landslides, rockfalls, or slope failures. Engineers need to consider the attitude of bedrock when designing infrastructure on or near slopes to ensure safety and stability. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.studocu.com/row/document/pokhara-university/civil-engineering/attitude-of-bed-rocks-chapter-7-geology/66192424  Engineering significances of attitude of bed rocks Foundation design The orientation of bedrock layers affects the design and construction of foundations for buildings, bridges, dams, and other structures. Understanding the attitude of bedrock helps engineers determine the type of foundation required, such as shallow foundations, deep foundations, or pile foundations. It also helps assess the load-bearing capacity and potential settlement of the foundation. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.studocu.com/row/document/pokhara-university/civil-engineering/attitude-of-bed-rocks-chapter-7-geology/66192424  Engineering significances of attitude of bed rocks Tunneling and excavation When constructing tunnels, mines, or underground structures, the attitude of bedrock is crucial for determining the optimal excavation techniques and ensuring stability. Engineers analyze the orientation of rock layers to plan tunnel alignment, evaluate the strength of the surrounding rock mass, and design appropriate support systems to prevent cave-ins or collapses during excavation. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.studocu.com/row/document/pokhara-university/civil-engineering/attitude-of-bed-rocks-chapter-7-geology/66192424  Engineering significances of attitude of bed rocks Geological mapping and site investigation Geological mapping involves the systematic study and documentation of the attitude of bedrock and other geological features. It helps engineers and geologists understand the geological history, structural complexities, and rock properties of a site. This information is critical for site investigation, geological hazard assessment, and planning engineering projects. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.studocu.com/row/document/pokhara-university/civil-engineering/attitude-of-bed-rocks-chapter-7-geology/66192424  Engineering significances of attitude of bed rocks Geotechnical modeling Attitude data of bedrock is incorporated into geotechnical models to simulate and analyze the behavior of the ground. It assists in predicting the response of rock masses to different engineering activities, such as the stability of excavations, the behavior of retaining walls, or the deformation of slopes. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.studocu.com/row/document/pokhara-university/civil-engineering/attitude-of-bed-rocks-chapter-7-geology/66192424  STRUCTURAL Rock Deformation FLORENCE T. SAMONTE GEOLOGY  Terminologies Rock Deformation - defined as any change in the volume, shape and size of a rock body. - the process by which rocks change shape or size in response to stress. Stress - is a force per unit area or a force that acts on a surface. When rocks deform in response to imposed stress, they exhibit strain. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Strain - physical change that results in response to that force.  Types of Stress that Deform Rocks Compressional Stress (Compressive Force) - squeeze and shorten a body - is caused by two plates moving together or by one plate pushing against another plate that is not moving. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://opengeology.org/textbook/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/  Types of Stress that Deform Rocks Tensional Stress (Tensile Force) - involves forces pulling in opposite directions FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://opengeology.org/textbook/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/  Types of Stress that Deform Rocks Shear Stress (Shear Force) - produced when two plates slide past each other or one plate slides past another plate that is not working. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://opengeology.org/textbook/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/  Stress and Strain in Rocks Type of Stress Resulting Strain Tensional Stretching and thinning Compressional Shortening and thickening Shear Tearing FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://opengeology.org/textbook/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/  Type of Stress Tensional Compressional Shear FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Plate-Tectonic-Theory.jpg  Stages of Rock Deformation As rocks are stressed, they go through stages of deformation. At first, the rock is strained enough that its shape or size may change, but the change is reversible. This is the first stage, called elastic deformation. Rocks may also become so deformed that the change is not reversible, which we call ductile deformation. Ductile means that something can be changed into a new shape, but once this happens, it stays that way. Brittle deformation is another critical point of no return, when rock integrity fails and the rock fractures under increasing stress. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://opengeology.org/textbook/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/  At shallow depths, rocks exhibit brittle fracture At deeper FLORENCE T. SAMONTE crustal depths, rocks deform by ductile flow https://opengeology.org/textbook/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/  Factors that Affect Rock Deformation 1) Pore pressure 2) Strain rate 3) Rock strength 4) Temperature 5) Stress intensity 6) Time 7) Confining pressure FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://opengeology.org/textbook/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/  Factors that Affect Rock Deformation Pore pressure is exerted on the rock by fluids in the open spaces or pores embedded within rock or sediment. Strain rate measures how quickly a material is deformed. For example, applying stress slowly makes it is easier to bend a piece of wood without breaking it. Rock strength measures how easily a rock deforms under stress. Shale has low strength and granite has high strength. Removing heat, or decreasing the temperature, makes materials more rigid and susceptible to brittle deformation. On the other hand, heating materials make them more ductile and less brittle. Heated glass can be bent and stretched. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://opengeology.org/textbook/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/  Geological Structures FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://opengeology.org/textbook/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/  Geological Structures Geologic folds are layers of rock that are curved or bent by ductile deformation. Folds are most commonly formed by compressional forces at depth, where hotter temperatures and higher confining pressures allow ductile deformation to occur. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://opengeology.org/textbook/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/  Geological Structures The highest point of an anticline Anatomy of a Fold The line that cuts the The curved part of the fold axial plane and intersects which runs in an opposite the horizontal plane direction to each other The lowest point on a syncline (hinge) The plane which divides the fold into two halves FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  Geological Structures Classifications of Fold Symmetrical Fold Ptygmatic Fold Assymetrical Fold Dome Overturned Fold Basin Recumbent Fold Plunging Anticline Non-plunging Syncline Chevron FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Monocline Isoclinal Drag Fold  Classifications of Fold SYMMETRICAL FOLD ASSYMMETRICAL FOLD OVERTURNED FOLD RECUMBENT FOLD Symmetrical folds have a vertical axial plane and limbs have equal but opposite dips. Asymmetrical folds have dipping, non-vertical axial planes, where the limbs dip at FLORENCE T. SAMONTE different angles. Overturned folds have steeply dipping axial planes and the limbs dip in the same direction but usually at different dip angles. Recumbent folds have horizontal or nearly horizontal axial planes.  Classifications of Fold (Examples) ASSYMMETRICAL FOLD FLORENCE T. SAMONTE SYMMETRICAL FOLD https://www.quora.com/What-is-a-symmetrical-fold-in-geology https://www.researchgate.net/figure/General-view-of-a-mappable-asymmetrical-fold-developed-within-the-Caybagi- Formation-2-km_fig4_288062762  Classifications of Fold OVERTURNED FOLD RECUMBENT FOLD FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geology/Historical_Geology_%28Bentley_et_al.%29/59%3A_%28Tools_of_th https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/39406565477301719/ e_Trade%29_Geologic_structures/59.03%3A_Deformation_-_folding  Geological Structures Classifications of Fold Anticline The fold which is characterized by convex curvature, having opposite dip directions towards each other is known as anticline. The anticline is characterized by older rocks in the center and younger rocks in the periphery. This is produced due to compressive stress. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  ANTICLINE FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://eos.org/research-spotlights/new-model-simulates-faults-and-folds-shaping-each-other  ANTICLINE FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://arkansasgeological.files.wordpress.com/2015/11/angelas-anticline-with-igneous-dike.jpg  ANTICLINE FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://pressbooks.lib.vt.edu/introearthscience/chapter/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/  Geological Structures Classifications of Fold Syncline The fold which is characterized by a concave curvature, having dip directions towards the center is known as syncline. The syncline is characterized by older rocks in the periphery and younger rocks at the center, younger rocks in the periphery. This is produced due to compressive stress. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  SYNCLINE FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/chapter/reading-folds/  SYNCLINE FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.geologyin.com/2014/06/plunging-syncline.html  SYNCLINE FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.zmescience.com/science/geology/geological-folds/  FOLD TRAIN A sequence of linked anticlines and synclines FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://openpress.usask.ca/app/uploads/sites/29/2018/02/fold_asymmetrical.png  FOLD TRAIN A sequence of linked anticlines and synclines FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.futurelearn.com/info/courses/ore-geology-in-the-epicentre-of-the-fossil-free-energy-transition-/0/steps/344813  FOLD TRAIN FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/images/activities/synclines_example.jpg  Geological Structures Classifications of Fold Monoclines Monoclines are step-like folds, in which flat rocks are upwarped or downwarped, then continue flat. Monoclines can be caused by bending of shallower sedimentary strata as faults grow below them. These faults are commonly called “blind faults” because they end before reaching the surface and can be either normal or reverse faults. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2016/03/folds-and-foliations.html  MONOCLINE FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.zmescience.com/science/geology/geological-folds/  MONOCLINE FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://blogs.agu.org/mountainbeltway/2011/07/01/friday-fold-west-bighorn-monocline/  Competent Bed A rock formation that, because of massiveness or inherent strength, is able to lift not only its Geological Structures own weight but also that of the overlying rock. A bed that has a physical characteristic such that it Classifications of Fold responds to tectonic forces by folding and faulting, rather than by crushing and flowing. A competent bed is Drag Folds relatively strong. These are minor or small folds formed when competent beds (weak beds) moves over the incompetent beds. The axial planes of these folds are inclined to the bedding planes. Drag folds are useful in the determination of top and bottom of the beds. Incompetent Bed A bed that, in a particular case of folding, has yielded to the lateral pressure by plastic adjustment and flow. This may result FLORENCE T. SAMONTE in the bedding being thrown into complex structures or in the development of more regular internal structures, particularly drag folds and fracture cleavage. The bed tends to thicken toward the hinges, and to thin in the limbs, of the folds. https://www.mindat.org/glossary/incompetent_bed  DRAG FOLD FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=730379770727113&set=a.145674989197597 https://azgs.arizona.edu/photo/drag-fold-safford-basin-deposits  DRAG FOLD FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://blogs.agu.org/mountainbeltway/2015/06/19/friday-fold-subglacial-drag-fold-pleistocene-in-cretaceous- sediments-alberta/  DRAG FOLD FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://openpress.usask.ca/app/uploads/sites/29/2018/02/fold_asymmetrical.png  Geological Structures Classifications of Fold Ptygmatic Fold A ptygmatic fold is a type of fold that is characterized by its irregular and lobate shape. Ptygmatic folds are often found in migmatites, which are rocks that are composed of both metamorphic and igneous rocks. Ptygmatic folds are thought to form as a result of the partial melting of rocks during metamorphism. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE  PTYGMATIC FOLD FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geodil.dperkins.org/h/3045.html  PTYGMATIC FOLD FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://imaggeo.egu.eu/view/222/  Geological Structures Classifications of Fold Youngest Strata Domes Oldest Strata Domes resemble anticlines, but the beds dip uniformly in all directions away from the center of the structure. Domes are caused by compression and uplift. Domes are circular features that arch FLORENCE T. SAMONTE upward. When domes are eroded, the oldest rocks are in the center of the dome structure. https://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2016/03/folds-and-foliations.html  Geological Structures Oldest Strata Classifications of Fold Basins Youngest Strata Basins resemble synclines, but the beds dip uniformly in all directions toward the center of the structure. Basins are caused by compression and down warping. Basins are circular features that arch FLORENCE T. SAMONTE downward. When basins are eroded, the youngest rocks are in the center of the basin structure. https://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2016/03/folds-and-foliations.html  DOME BASIN Youngest Strata Oldest Strata Oldest Strata Youngest Strata FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2016/03/folds-and-foliations.html  DOME FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Desert of Mauritania https://www.geologyin.com/2015/02/types-of-folds-with-photos.html  DOME FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Desert of Mauritania https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/worlds-most-unusual-landscapes/index.html  BASIN near Jukan, Iran FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://cdn.serc.carleton.edu/images/NAGTWorkshops/structure/makran_nr._jukan_iran.jpg  Geological Structures Classifications of Fold Plunging When the axis or hinge line of a fold is inclined with respect to the horizontal, the fold is known as a plunging fold. Non-Plunging When the axis of a fold is not inclined with respect to the horizontal, the fold is known as a non-plunging fold. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://slideplayer.com/slide/13801605/  Classifications of Fold PLUNGING FOLD FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://all-geo.org/highlyallochthonous/2010/03/more-folds-a-plunging/  Geological Structures Classifications of Fold Chevron Chevron folds are a structural feature characterized by repeated well behaved folded beds with straight limbs and sharp hinges. Well developed, these folds develop repeated set of V-shaped beds. They develop in response to regional or local compressive stress. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://slideplayer.com/slide/13801605/  CHEVRON FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.geologyin.com/2015/02/types-of-folds-with-photos.html  Geological Structures Classifications of Fold Isoclinal An isoclinal fold is a type of fold in which the limbs are parallel or nearly parallel to each other. This is in contrast to other types of folds, such as symmetrical folds, in which the limbs are at an angle to each other. Isoclinal folds are formed by intense compressional forces. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.geologyin.com/2015/02/types-of-folds-with-photos.html  ISOCLINAL FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.geologyin.com/2015/02/types-of-folds-with-photos.html  Geological Structures FAULT A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults allow the blocks to move relative to each other. This movement may occur rapidly, in the form of an earthquake - or may occur slowly, in the form of creep. Faults may range in length from a few millimeters to thousands of kilometers. Most faults produce repeated displacements over geologic time. During an earthquake, the rock FLORENCE T. SAMONTE on one side of the fault suddenly slips with respect to the other. The fault surface can be horizontal or vertical or some arbitrary angle in between. https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-a-fault-and-what-are-different-types  A fault is sinistral if, to an observer standing on one block and facing the other, the opposite block FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Dextral appears to have been displaced to his left. Sinistral Conversely, the fault is dextral if the movement is to the right. https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeologyh5p/chapter/fractures-joints-and-faults/  Geological Structures Classifications of Faults Normal Fault In a normal fault, the hanging wall (the block of rock above the fault plane) moves downward relative to the footwall (the block of rock below the fault plane). Normal faults are common at divergent plate FLORENCE T. SAMONTE boundaries where the Earth’s crust is stretching. https://geologyscience.com/geology/fault-and-types-of-faults/?amp https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeologyh5p/chapter/fractures-joints-and-faults/  NORMAL FAULT Faulting that occurs in divergent boundaries. Horst - elevated blocks with Graben - blocks that move down graben on either side relative to the other blocks FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://opengeology.org/textbook/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/horst-graben-svg/  NORMAL FAULT HORST HORST GRABEN FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Graben_-_Horst_-_mour%C3%A8ze.jpg  NORMAL FAULT FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/511791945133045782/  NORMAL FAULT FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://opengeology.org/textbook/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/horst-graben-svg/  NORMAL FAULT FLORENCE T. SAMONTE http://geotripperimages.com/images/DSC01776%20Normal%20fault%20in%20Mosaic%20Canyon.jpg  Geological Structures Classifications of Faults Reverse Fault In a reverse fault, the hanging wall moves upward relative to the footwall. Reverse faults typically occur at convergent plate boundaries where tectonic plates are colliding and undergoing FLORENCE T. SAMONTE compression. https://geologyscience.com/geology/fault-and-types-of-faults/?amp https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeologyh5p/chapter/fractures-joints-and-faults/  REVERSE FAULT FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Structural Geology Blog  REVERSE FAULT FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.flickr.com/photos/sksugita/5541483097/  Geological Structures Classifications of Faults Strike-Slip Fault In a strike-slip fault, the movement is primarily horizontal, with minimal vertical displacement. The rocks on either side of the fault slide past each other horizontally. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologyscience.com/geology/fault-and-types-of-faults/?amp  STRIKE-SLIP FAULT FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologyscience.com/gallery/geological-wonders/san-andreas-fault-california-usa/?amp  STRIKE-SLIP FAULT FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://twin-cities.umn.edu/news-events/researchers-unearth-mysteries-how-turkeys-east-anatolian-fault-formed  Type of Stress Tensional Compressional Shear Associated Fault Normal Fault Reverse Fault Strike-Slip FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Plate-Tectonic-Theory.jpg  Geological Structures JOINT A joint is a fracture which has no displacement. Joints are developed in a rock due to stress and brittleness of the rock. When rocks break in response to stress, the resulting break is called a fracture. If rocks on one side of the break shift relative to rocks on the other side, then the fracture is a fault. If there is no movement of one side relative to FLORENCE T. SAMONTE the other, and if there are many other fractures with the same orientation, then the fractures are called joints. Joints with a common orientation make up a joint set https://opengeology.org/textbook/9-crustal-deformation-and-earthquakes/  JOINT SETS Joint sets have broken these siltstone and shale beds into long rectangular planks. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/chapter/13-3-fractures-faults-and-joints-2/  JOINT SETS Joint sets have broken these siltstone and shale beds into long Orthogonal rectangular planks. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://arkansasgeological.wordpress.com/2015/02/27/geopic-of-the-week-orthogonal-joint-set/  JOINT SETS Joint sets have broken these siltstone and shale beds into long rectangular planks. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://whattherockstellus.blogspot.com/2012/03/dominoes-anyone.html  Geological Structures Classifications of Joints Based on Genesis and Orientation Tensional Joints These joints are formed in the rocks due to contraction of mineral grains during cooling of magma. The structures produced during the process of generation of these joints are columnar. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologyscience.com/geology/fault-and-types-of-faults/?amp  COLUMNAR JOINTS FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geoetc.com/columnar-jointing/  COLUMNAR JOINTS FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.eurekalert.org/multimedia/748873  Geological Structures Classifications of Joints Based on Genesis and Orientation Sheet Joints In this case there is one set of prominent joints parallel to the ground surface whose spacings generally increase with depth and a second set running at right angles. The joints in this case separate the rock body into sheet like blocks. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologyscience.com/geology/fault-and-types-of-faults/?amp  SHEET JOINTS FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://slideplayer.com/slide/4526327/  SHEET JOINTS FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologypics.com/unloading-joints-in-granitic-rock-yosemite-np-cal/  Geological Structures Classifications of Joints Based on Genesis and Orientation Compressional Joints The joints which are developed due to compressional forces are called compressional joints. These joints are characterized by crushing and a fragile nature with rough surfaces. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologyscience.com/geology/fault-and-types-of-faults/?amp  Geological Structures Classifications of Joints Based on Spatial Relationship Systematic Joints Systematic joints are characterized by a roughly planar geometry; they have relatively long traces and typically form sets of approximately parallel and almost equally spaced joints. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://geologyscience.com/geology/fault-and-types-of-faults/?amp  SYSTEMATIC JOINTS FLORENCE T. SAMONTE Traces of orthogonal systematic joints defining a grid-lock pattern. (aec) Views on a bedding surface of quartz sandstone from Eaglehawk Neck, Tasmania, Australia (a, b) and St. Mary's Chapel, Caithness, Scotland, UK (c). (d) Orthogonal fractures https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Traces-of-orthogonal-systematic- produced in brittle varnish by orthogonal loadings (Rives et al., 1994). Courtesy Carolyn Bell, Stephanie Sykora, and Mike joints-defining-a-grid-lock-pattern-aec-Views-on-a_fig1_346771422 Norton for pictures (a), (b) and (c), respectively.  Geological Structures Classifications of Joints Based on Spatial Relationship Non-Systematic Joints - joints that are so irregular in form, spacing, and orientation that they cannot be readily grouped into distinctive, through-going joint sets. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Main-characteristic-of-non-systematic-joints-a-photograph_fig6_226709873  Geological Structures Classifications of Joints Based on Geometry Strike Joints - Joints that are parallel to the strike of rocks Dip Joints - Joints that are parallel to the dip of rocks Oblique Joints - Joints, which run in a direction that lies between the strike and dip direction FLORENCE T. SAMONTE of the rock beds https://www.geographynotes.com/geology-2/structural-geology/joints-definition-classification-and-consideration-geology/1375  Geological Structures Classifications of Joints Based on Geometry Mural Joints Granites show three sets of joints mutually at right angles, which divide the rocks mass into more or less cubical blocks. Such joints are called ‘Mural Joints’. Bedding Joints Joints that are parallel to the bedding planes in a sedimentary rock are called ‘Bedding Joints’. FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.geographynotes.com/geology-2/structural-geology/joints-definition-classification-and-consideration-geology/1375 FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Field-photography-of-travertine-showing-two-joint-sets-and-bedding-planes-Location- of_fig5_333568620 MURAL JOINTS  BEDDING JOINTS FLORENCE T. SAMONTE https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Field-photography-of-travertine-showing-two-joint-sets-and-bedding-planes-Location-of_fig5_333568620  Geological Structures https://image.slidesharecdn.com/shivamjain-181209070235/85/joints-and-its-classification-and-its-recognition-25- Classifications of Joints Based on Geometry Master Joints In sedimentary rocks the joints usually run in two directions at nearly right angles. One set of joints run parallel to the dip direction and the other parallel to strike of these one set of joints commonly more strongly developed than the other and extends for long FLORENCE T. SAMONTE distances. Such well-developed joints are called ‘Master Joints’. 320.jpg?cb=1665702591 https://www.geographynotes.com/geology-2/structural-geology/joints-definition-classification-and-consideration-geology/1375 FLORENCE T. SAMONTE STRUCTURAL GENERAL GEOLOGY CHAPTER 1 GEOLOGY STRUCTURAL Definition of Terms Importance of Structural Geology GENERAL Attitude of Beds GEOLOGY Rock DeformationCHAPTER 1 Physical & Mechanical Properties of Rocks Geological Maps GEOLOGY STRUCTURAL Rock Properties and Uses GEOLOGY  Hardness Strength Hardness is a measure of a Strength is a measure of a rock’s rock’s resistance to scratching ability to withstand stress and or abrasion. deformation without breaking. Rocks with high hardness, such Strong rocks, such as granite as granite and basalt, are and quartzite, are used in commonly used as construction construction for structural materials for buildings, roads, purposes, including building and monuments due to their foundations and road durability and resistance to pavements. wear. https://geologyscience.com/rocks-2/  Texture Texture refers to the size, Density shape, and arrangement of Density is the mass per unit mineral grains or crystals in a volume of a rock. rock. Dense rocks, such as basalt and Different textures can affect the iron ore, are used for heavy rock’s strength, durability, and construction and as a raw appearance. For example, fine- material in the production of grained rocks like shale and metals. slate are used for roofing tiles, while coarse-grained rocks like granite and marble are used for decorative purposes. https://geologyscience.com/rocks-2/ https://gpg.geosci.xyz/content/physical_properties/tables/density_metamorphic_rocks.html https://www.facebook.com/geologyeng/posts/igneous-rocks-are-classified-based-on-mineral-composition-and-texture-more-on- li/840761076581860/ https://forestrybloq.com/texture-and-structure-of-sedimentary-rocks/ https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/geolmanual/wp-content/uploads/sites/1073/2020/07/meta_table_MA0321.png  Mineral Composition Rocks are composed of various Color and Appearance minerals, and their mineral The color and appearance of composition can determine rocks can have aesthetic and their physical and chemical decorative uses, such as in properties. landscaping, architecture, and For example, rocks rich in interior design. calcium carbonate minerals like Rocks with unique colors and limestone and marble are used patterns, such as agate, jasper, as building materials, while and quartzite, are often used for rocks rich in iron minerals like ornamental purposes. hematite and magnetite are used as sources of iron for metallurgical purposes. https://geologyscience.com/rocks-2/  Porosity Porosity refers to the amount and size of pores or open spaces within a rock. Porous rocks, such as sandstone and limestone, can hold water and serve as aquifers for groundwater storage. They are also used in construction for their insulating properties. https://geologyscience.com/rocks-2/ https://twitter.com/GeoscienceEA/status/1159106718019805184/photo/1  Other Properties Rocks may also exhibit other properties such as magnetism, electrical conductivity, and thermal conductivity, which can have specialized uses in various applications. https://ukge.com/product/lodestone-bolivia-2/ https://rockidentifier.com/wiki/Schist.html https://geologybase.com/basalt/ Lodestone Schist Basalt https://www.geologypage.com/2014/05/magnetite.html#google_vignette STRUCTURAL Geological Maps GEOLOGY Geological Maps Geological maps are important tools used by geologists to represent the distribution and characteristics of rocks and geological features on the Earth’s surface. These maps are essential for understanding the geological history, tectonic processes, and natural resources of a given area. https://www.microblife.in/what-are-geologic-events/ https://ppdo.bohol.gov.ph/maps/thematic-maps/geologic-map/ https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=7459136600771345&set=gm.1457891691439971&idorvanity=207595016469651 Key Topics Related to Geological Maps Definition and purpose of geological maps: Geological maps provide a visual representation of the geology of a region, including rock types, faults, folds, and other geological features. The purpose of these maps is to help geologists understand the geological history and structure of a given area, which can be used for a variety of purposes, such as mineral exploration, natural resource management, and hazard assessment. Map symbols and conventions: Geological maps use a variety of symbols and conventions to represent different geological features. These symbols can include colors, patterns, and line types, which represent different rock types, faults, folds, and other features. Key Topics Related to Geological Maps Scale and accuracy: Geological maps are created at different scales, depending on the size of the area being studied. The accuracy of these maps is also an important consideration, as errors or inaccuracies can have significant implications for natural resource management, hazard assessment, and engineering projects. Interpretation and analysis: Once a geological map has been created, it must be interpreted and analyzed in order to gain a deeper understanding of the geology of the region. This can involve identifying relationships between different rock types, faults, and folds, as well as analyzing the spatial distribution and orientation of geological features. Key Topics Related to Geological Maps Applications of geological maps: Geological maps have a wide range of applications, including mineral exploration, natural resource management, hazard assessment, and engineering projects. These maps can also be used to help scientists better understand the geological history and evolution of the Earth. Limitations and challenges: Geological maps have some limitations and challenges, including the difficulty of accurately representing complex geological features, the need for accurate data and field observations, and the potential for errors and inaccuracies. Types of Geological Maps Bedrock maps These maps show the location and distribution of different types of rock formations at or near the Earth’s surface. Bedrock maps can be used to identify the age, composition, and structure of rocks in an area, as well as their potential for use as natural resources. https://people.uwec.edu/runningl/trina%27s%20web%20stuff/group%208%20pit%208/bedrockmap.htm  Simplified bedrock geology maps of Northern Ireland and areas of peatland https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Simplified-bedrock-geology-maps-of-Northern-Ireland-and-areas-of-peatland-original-GIS_fig1_349825910 Depth-to-bedrock map of China Final prediction of depth to bedrock based on the ensemble model. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-019-0345-6/figures/6 Types of Geological Maps Surficial maps These maps show the distribution of different types of surficial materials, such as soils, sediments, and glacial deposits. Surficial maps can be used to study the history of climate change, the location of natural resources like water and minerals, and the potential for soil erosion and landslides. https://www.mass.gov/doc/surficial-geology-24k-sample-map/download https://www.ramseynj.com/DocumentCenter/View/55/Surficial-Geology---Figure-10-PDF Types of Geological Maps Structural maps These maps show the orientation and location of different types of geologic structures, such as faults and folds. Structural maps can be used to study the history of tectonic activity in an area, as well as the potential for earthquakes and other natural hazards. https://mgb9geo.home.blog/2022/06/09/progress-report-geologic-mapping-for-the-alicia-quadrangle/ https://www.researchgate.net/figure/a-Generalized-structural-geology-map-showing-the-distribution-of-axial-surface-traces_fig3_251426618 https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Structural-map-of-the-eastern-Zagros-This-map-has-been-compiled-using-various-geological_fig2_257785832 https://www.researchgate.net/figure/a-Geological-map-of-the-Kuh-e-Lajin-Kuh-e-Bazman-and-adjacent-areas-modified-from- Ardal_fig10_257785832 https://d9-wret.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/assets/palladium/production/s3fs-public/thumbnails/image/sollerfig1.jpg https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Regional-geology-of-the-Philippine-archipelago-and-distribution-of-porphyry- deposits_fig8_334084209 Types of Geological Maps Mineral maps These maps show the location and distribution of different types of minerals and mineral resources in an area. Mineral maps can be used to study the geology of an area, as well as the potential for economic development through mining and other resource extraction. https://essc.org.ph/content/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/ESSC-WRI.jpg https://maps.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/philippines_ind_1973.jpg https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/254242341436297691/ Types of Geological Maps Geologic hazard maps These maps show the potential for natural hazards, such as earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic eruptions, in an area. Geologic hazard maps can be used to identify areas that are at risk for these types of events, as well as to develop strategies for mitigating their effects. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/131111-philippines-dangers-haiyan-yolanda-death-toll-rises https://pia.gov.ph/news/2022/07/08/mgb-reiterates-importance-of-geohazard-maps-in-disaster-preparedness https://pdrrmo.bulacan.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED-LANDSLIDE-HAZARD-MAP_LETTER- scaled.jpg Components of Geologic Maps  Legend/key: A list or diagram that explains the symbols and colors used on the map, including rock formations, geological structures, and other features. https://ppdo.bohol.gov.ph/maps/thematic-maps/geologic-map/  Scale: A ratio or bar scale that indicates the relationship between distances on the map and actual distances on the ground. https://ppdo.bohol.gov.ph/maps/thematic-maps/geologic-map/  North arrow: A symbol that shows the orientation of the map, usually pointing to true north. https://ppdo.bohol.gov.ph/maps/thematic-maps/geologic-map/  topography of the area. of equal elevation, used to depict the Contour lines: Lines that connect points https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Geologic-map-and-structure-contour-of-the-Walnut-base-of-the-Edwards-Geologic-map- from_fig1_320719634 Contour lines: Lines that connect points of equal elevation, used to depict the topography of the area. https://theshearzone.wordpress.com/structure-contour-maps-and-exercises/  Geologic formations: Different rock units that are shown using distinctive colors or patterns, with each formation labeled according to its age and type. https://www.digitalatlasofancientlife.org/learn/geological-time/geological-maps/  Structural features: Faults, folds, and layers have been deformed over time. other features that show how the rock https://www.researchgate.net/figure/a-Geological-map-of-the-Kuh-e-Lajin-Kuh-e-Bazman-and-adjacent-areas-modified-from- Ardal_fig10_257785832 https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Regional-geology-of-the-Philippine-archipelago-and-distribution-of-porphyry- Structural features: Faults, folds, and deposits_fig8_334084209 layers have been deformed over time. other features that show how the rock  Cultural features: Roads, buildings, and other man-made features that are included on the map. https://ppdo.bohol.gov.ph/maps/thematic-maps/geologic-map/  Grid lines: Lines that divide the map into sections to help with navigation and measurement. https://ppdo.bohol.gov.ph/maps/thematic-maps/geologic-map/ Marginal information: Additional information about https://pdrrmo.bulacan.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED-LANDSLIDE-HAZARD-MAP_LETTER- the map, such as the date it was created, the name of the geologist who made it, and the source of the data used to create it. scaled.jpg  Marginal information: Additional information about the map, such as the date it was created, the name of the geologist who made it, and the source of the data used to create it. https://ppdo.bohol.gov.ph/maps/thematic-maps/geologic-map/ https://www.trollart.com/product/ages-of-rock-art-poster/ https://opengeology.org/historicalgeology/tools-of-historical-geology/geologic-maps/ https://www.geologynet.com/corel-draw-templates/  https://dep.nj.gov/wp-content/uploads/seeds/rocksym.gif https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/sedimentary-rock-symbols-ahmed-zakaria/  Big Bryce Tianzi Valley Canyon Baatara Mountains Horseshoe Bend Pancake Dzukou ofNational the Valley Rocks Bend MoonPark National Chocolate Gorge Hills Park Waterfall Utah China Texas Argentina Arizona, New IndiaZealand US Philippines Lebanon Namib Sand Sea Namibia https://outforia.com/types-of-landforms/ https://www.nps.gov/subjects/geology/fluvial-landforms.htm https://www.fodors.com/news/photos/incredible-land-formations-around-the-world https://larutanatural.gob.ar/en/must-see/132/ischigualasto-provincial-park https://www.lonelyplanet.com/news/horseshoe-bend-entry-fee https://www.fodors.com/news/photos/incredible-land-formations-around-the-world Earth processes are natural forces that shape the physical planet. A landform is a feature on Earth's surface that is part of the terrain. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/landform/ A terrain is a spatial data set that contains the ground elevations throughout a particular area. https://www.hec.usace.army.mil/confluence/fdadocs/fdaum/terrain-152636707.html Elevation is the vertical distance of a point or object above or below a reference surface or datum (generally mean sea level). https://support.esri.com/en-us/gis-dictionary/elevation Forces that change the Earth Constructive Forces and Destructive Forces - Constructive forces build or create new landforms. - Destructive forces destroy or breaks down existing landforms. https://physicsinmyview.com/2023/05/constructive-vs-destructive-forces.html Sand dunes Valley Plain LANDFORMS Butte Peninsula Impact crater Canyon Cave Island LANDFORMS Mountains Dessert Basin Constructive forces are a type of force that adds new materials, hence creating new landforms on the earth’s surface. These forces are typically associated with tectonic activity, volcanic eruptions, and sedimentation. They basically work to build and shape the landscape, leading to the formation of new mountains, valleys, and other geological features. plate-boundaries-convergent-top_fig1_305782020 https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-representation-of-the-three-types-of- Constructive forces examples: ▪ Plate Tectonics ▪ River Erosion ▪ Human Constructions ▪ Coastal Erosion ▪ Ocean Currents ▪ Volcanic Eruptions ▪ Sedimentation ▪ Earthquakes ▪ Glaciers https://newatlas.com/before-after-photos-glaciers-climate-change/49143/ ▪ Wind Erosion https://proest.com/construction/process/construction-sites/ ▪ Reef Building https://www.forbes.com/sites/jimdobson/2021/04/09/the-27-most-active-volcanoes-in-the-world-and-what-could-erupt- https://www.iflscience.com/photos-show-what-seven-years-of-restoration-can-do-for-coral-reefs-66687 next/?sh=28564b7e7836 https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-major-ocean-current-is-at-its-weakest-point-in-1-000- https://www.thestatesman.com/bengal/balagarh-school-building-prone-river-erosion-1503092274.html years/ ▪ Meteorite Impacts, etc. https://www.prameyanews7.com/earth-quake-over-all-world/ https://ugc.berkeley.edu/background-content/meteorite-impact/ https://consent.yahoo.com/v2/collectConsent?sessionId=4_cc-session_604bd651-20d6-4c9d-997b-de897413c048 https://physics.aps.org/articles/v10/40 https://slcc.pressbooks.pub/physicalgeography/chapter/5-5/ https://physicsinmyview.com/2023/05/constructive-vs-destructive-forces.html Destructive forces are a type of force that removes materials, hence destroying landforms and structures on the earth’s surface. These forces are typically associated with weathering, erosion, and mass wasting, all of which contribute to the gradual breakdown and removal of geological materials. Destructive forces examples: ▪ Hurricanes ▪ Tornadoes ▪ Tsunamis ▪ Deforestation ▪ Climate Change ▪ Earthquakes ▪ Draughts ▪ Landslides https://www.npr.org/sections/pictureshow/2021/12/12/1063449899/tornado-damage-before-and-after-images ▪ Forest Fires https://www.cnfaic.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Repeat-Offender.jpg https://maaproject.org/2021/amazon-hotspots-2021/ ▪ Avalanches https://www.lifecoachcode.com/2016/03/20/10-terrifying-before-and-after-photos-global-warming/ http://www.fcst-office.com/HardRock/Meteo241/Hurricane%20Chraley%20- ▪ Sinkholes, etc. https://curlytales.com/these-before-and-after-pictures-show-the-tragic-impact-of-bush-fires-in-australia/ %20The%20Little%20Storm%20That%20Snuck%20Up%20On%20Florida/ProjectFour.html https://edition.cnn.com/2022/11/30/americas/brazil-landslide-paran-state-intl-latam/index.html https://news.yahoo.com/climate-change-made-this-summers-drought-20-times-more-likely-study-finds-184106643.html https://www.nature.com/articles/4551183a https://www.wafb.com/story/22441002/residents-near-giant-louisiana-sinkhole-not-happy-with-buyout-offers/ https://physicsinmyview.com/2023/05/constructive-vs-destructive-forces.html https://temblor.net/earthquake-insights/offshore-el-salvador-earthquake-strikes-location-of-deadly-m7-7-event-6712/  Earth Processes and Landforms WEATHERING EROSION TRANSPORTATION DEPOSITION https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/60593b1c0d3940001bee4e97/weathering-erosion-and-deposition Introduction All landmasses are continually being worn away or denuded by weathering and erosion, the agents of erosion being the sea, rivers, wind and ice. The detrital products resulting from denudation are transported by water, wind, ice or the action of gravity, and are ultimately deposited.  WEATHERING Weathering is the wearing down or breaking of rocks while they are in place. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/weathering-erosion  Introduction Weathering also is controlled by the presence of discontinuities in that they provide access into a rock mass for the agents of weathering. Some of the earliest effects of weathering are seen along discontinuity surfaces. Weathering then proceeds inwards so that the rock mass may develop a marked heterogeneity with corestones of relatively unweathered material within a highly weathered matrix. Ultimately, the whole of the rock mass can be reduced to a residual soil. Discontinuities in carbonate rock masses are enlarged by dissolution, leading to the development of sinkholes and cavities within the rock mass. Geological discontinuity is normally recognized as a general term to describe any mechanical break (lacking significant tensile strength) within rock masses, including most joints, weak bedding planes, weakness zones and faults (ISRM, 1978) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/ Factors affecting the Weathering of Rocks ▪ Vigour of the weathering agents ▪ Durability of the rock mass ▪ Degree of interlocking between component minerals ▪ The amount of water that a rock contains ▪ The temperature and amount of moisture available (in humid regions) Types of Weathering ▪ Mechanical (Physical) Weathering ▪ Chemical Weathering ▪ Biological Weathering Types of Weathering ▪ Mechanical (Physical) Weathering Physical weathering occurs when physical processes affect the rock, such as changes in temperature or when the rock is exposed to the effects of wind, rain and waves. Water can get into cracks in a rock and, if it freezes, the ice will expand and push the cracks apart. When the ice melts, more water can get into the larger crack; if it freezes again it expands and can make the crack even bigger. Wind can cause weathering by blowing grains of sand against a rock, while rain and waves cause weathering by slowly wearing rock away over long periods of time.  Talus Slope of Wonder Talus is the sloping pile of loose rock fragments that accumulate along the edge of Keremeos, British Columbia https://www.flickr.com/photos/vitrain/3777219342 a steep cliff or other landform. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-sheet-talus-slope-with-minor-cone-development-Surprise-Valley-Jasper-National-Park_fig1_285955830 https://geologypics.com/talus-cone-and-crowfoot-mountain-banff-national-park-canada/  https://pixels.com/featured/talus-slope-hells-canyon-betty-b-derig.html?product=fleece-blanket&blanketType=blanket- coral-50-60 https://www.birdandhike.com/General_Info/Glossary/Gloss01-talus/_Gloss3.htm https://ar.europeanwriterstour.com/images-2023/talus-rock https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/102401/view/talus-slope Types of Weathering ▪ Mechanical (Physical) Weathering Frost wedging and freeze-thaw cycles Freeze-thaw weathering (also called frost shattering) is an erosion process that results when groundwater, rainwater or melted snow enters pores or joints in rock and then breaks the rock through frost wedging. Freeze-thaw weathering is a common occurrence in all parts of the world where the temperature sometimes goes below freezing. Mass wasting on hillsides and the resultant scree is usually a consequence of freeze-thaw weathering. https://eschooltoday.com/learn/weathering/ http://earthlearningidea.blogspot.com/2012/10/cracking-apart-physical-weathering.html https://www.heartofavalonia.org/freeze-thaw.html Types of Weathering ▪ Mechanical (Physical) Weathering Temperature Change and Exfoliation Heating and cooling of rocks repeatedly result in the expansion and contraction of the rock. When rock is exposed to high temperatures, it expands and as the temperatures cool, it contracts. This continual expansion and contraction cause the rocks to weaken and eventually break into pieces. The frequent temperature change from day-night cycles causes rock exfoliation. https://revision.co.zw/physical-weathering/ https://byjus.com/physics/mechanical-weathering/ https://earthhow.com/mechanical-weathering/  https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Exfoliation-of- granite-dome-rock-in-the-enchanted-rock-state-natural- area-Texas-USA_fig5_264118646 https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/173382/view/close-up-of-a-pebble-with-onion- skin-weathering https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Example-of-frost- weathering-in-the-Famatina-range-La-Rioja-Argentina-29-S-and- 67_fig1_264118646 https://portfolio.photoseek.com/image/I00005ck3u0syO8Q https://www.artsy.net/artwork/fabio-barile-onion-skin- exfoliation-in-a-manciano-sandstone-outcrop-tarquinia- lazio-italy https://the-earth-story.com/image/110181787065 https://portfolio.photoseek.com/image/I0000icsYJ1g9jkI https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exfoliating_granite#/media/File: Half_Dome_Trek_15_(4245933444).jpg  Types of Weathering ▪ Mechanical (Physical) Weathering Abrasion When a rock collides with one another, grinding of rock fragments takes place, and the rock is broken into pieces. Abrasion cuts them into smaller particles. Gravity causes abrasion when the rocks tumble down a mountainside and hit another rock, and break into the fragment. Moving water causes abrasion as particles in the water collide and bump against one another. High-speed winds which carry pieces of sand have the capacity to break the rock when they sandblast on the surface of the rock. http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2016/01/weathering-and-erosional-processes-in.html Abrasion makes rocks with sharp or jagged edges round- shaped and smooth. https://byjus.com/physics/mechanical-weathering/ Wind Abraded Rocks https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Examples-of-ventifact-occurrences-a-Wind-abraded-rocks-from-the-Dyngjoekull-area_fig1_305485661 Water Abraded Rocks https://rockhoundresource.com/why-river-rocks-are-smooth-the-science-explained/ Types of Weathering ▪ Mechanical (Physical) Weathering Abrasion The ice at the bottom of a glacier is not clean but usually has bits of rock, sediment, and debris. It is rough, like sandpaper. As a glacier flows downslope, it drags the rock, sediment, and debris in its basal ice over the bedrock beneath it, grinding it. This process is known as abrasion and produces scratches (striations) in bedrock surface. https://www.nps.gov/articles/howglacierchangethelandscape.htm https://mammothmemory.net/geography/geography-vocabulary/glacial- landscapes/abrasion.html https://www.facebook.com/Geologistspage/photos/a.513662172419756/753084238477547/ Glacial Abrasion https://www.climate-policy-watcher.org/glacial-erosion/glacial-abrasion.html Types of Weathering ▪ Mechanical (Physical) Weathering Haloclasty (Salt Weathering) Saltwater sometimes gets into the cracks and pores of rock. If the saltwater evaporates, salt crystals are left behind. As the crystals grow, they put pressure on the rock, slowly breaking it apart. Honeycomb weathering is associated with haloclasty. As its name implies. Honeycomb weathering describes rock formations with hundreds or even thousands of pits formed by the growth of salt crystals. Honeycomb weathering is common in coastal areas, where sea sprays constantly force rocks to interact with salts. https://byjus.com/physics/mechanical-weathering/ https://www.euston96.com/en/weathering/ https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Weathering https://oaklandgeology.files.wordpress.com/2014/05/tafoni.jpg Types of Weathering ▪ Chemical Weathering Chemical weathering leads to mineral alteration and the solution of rocks. Alteration is brought about principally by oxidation, hydration, hydrolysis and carbonation, whereas solution is brought about by acidified or alkalized waters. Chemical weathering also aids rock disintegration by weakening the rock fabric and by emphasizing any structural weaknesses, however slight, that it possesses. When decomposition occurs within a rock, the altered material frequently occupies a greater volume than that from which it was derived and, in the process, internal stresses are generated. If this expansion occurs in the outer layers of a rock, then it eventually causes them to peel off from the parent body. https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/stem-explained/processes-shape-landforms Types of Weathering ▪ Chemical Weathering Dissolution The process by which soluble rocks are dissolved by the passage of water or weakly acidic water either over the rock surfaces or through fractures and pores in the rock. Examples: limestone (predominantly calcium carbonate), chalk (also calcium carbonate), dolomite (magnesium calcium carbonate), gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate), and halite/“rock- salt” (sodium chloride) https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-73568-9_93 https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/chapter/8-2-chemical- 2/#:~:text=Dissolution,Na%2B%20and%20Cl%E2%80%93%20ions. weathering- https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978- 3-319-73568-9_93/figures/427 https://www.stone-ideas.com/80662/stone-forests/ Types of Weathering ▪ Chemical Weathering Hydrolysis In the process of hydrolysis, a new solution (a mixture of two or more substances) is formed as chemicals in rock interact with water. In many rocks, for example, sodium minerals interact with water to form a saltwater solution. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/weathering/ https://sites.radford.edu/~jtso/GeologyofVirginia/Weathering/GeologyOfVAWeathering5-1c.html https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-effects-of-acid-rain-on-rocks Types of Weathering ▪ Chemical Weathering Hydration This process is a form of chemical weathering in which the chemical bonds of the mineral are changed as it interacts with water. One instance of hydration occurs as the mineral anhydrite reacts with groundwater. The water transforms anhydrite into gypsum, one of the most common minerals on Earth. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/weathering/ https://www.toppr.com/ask/content/story/amp/chemical-weathering-124125/ Types of Weathering ▪ Chemical Weathering Oxidation Oxidation is the reaction of rock minerals with oxygen, thus changing the mineral composition of the rock. When minerals in rock oxidize, they become less resistant to weathering. Iron, a commonly known mineral, becomes red or rust colored when oxidized. https://passel2.unl.edu/view/lesson/edd25385ca3d/3 https://sites.radford.edu/~jtso/GeologyofVirginia/Weathering/GeologyOfVAWeathering5-1c.html https://openpress.usask.ca/app/uploads/sites/29/2018/07/pillow-lava-Banco-de-Imagenes.jpg Types of Weathering ▪ Chemical Weathering Carbonation Carbonation is the process of rock minerals reacting with carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is formed when water combines with carbon dioxide. Carbonic acid dissolves or breaks down minerals in the rock. This type of weathering is important in the formation of caves. https://passel2.unl.edu/view/lesson/edd25385ca3d/3 https://prepp.in/news/e-492-ncert-notes-for-upsc-ias-exam-chemical-weathering https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/weathering/ Types of Weathering ▪ Biological Weathering Biological weathering is caused by the movements of plants and animals. Plants and animals play an important role in the breakdown and decay of rocks, indeed their part in soil formation is of major significance. Tree roots penetrate cracks in rocks and gradually wedge the sides apart, whereas the adventitious root system of grasses breaks down small rock fragments to particles of soil size. Burrowing rodents also bring about mechanical disintegration of rocks. The action of bacteria and fungi is largely responsible for the decay of dead organic matter. Other bacteria are responsible, for example, for the reduction of iron or sulphur compounds. https://www.bioexplorer.net/biological-weathering.html/ https://www.bonsaitree.co.za/blogs/tree-talk/ficus-roots-from-the-sky https://www.jkgeography.com/fluvial-processes-weathering-and-mass-movement.html https://sciencing.com/biological-weathering-5633317.html https://www.jkgeography.com/fluvial-processes-weathering-and-mass-movement.html https://www.jkgeography.com/fluvial-processes-weathering-and-mass-movement.html  EROSION https://www.rootwell.com/blogs/5-effective-ways-control-erosion Introduction Erosion is a process often confused with weathering. Both are geological processes in which the rocks are broken down into finer particles, which can range from boulders to fine clay particles in size, and both are part of the ‘rock cycle’. Erosion involves the movement of fragments of rock by the erosion processes and therefore differs from weathering, which is just concerned with the decay of rock in situ. If the wind is dusty, or water or glacial ice is muddy, erosion is taking place. The brown color indicates that bits of rock and soil are suspended in the fluid (air or water) and being transported from one place to another. This transported material is called sediment. Erosion by Water: Introduction The water flowing in the river along its seaward course erodes the land over which it flows, brings about its channel decay, denudes the country rocks, transports the rock debris formed during erosion and weathering and finally, deposits the transported materials under favourable conditions.  Erosion by Water Hydraulic Action Abrasion Attrition This is the dominating process of The larger boulders and pebbles During flow of a river, there is erosion along the upper part of the roll along the valley floor and move collision among particles of course of river, where the gradient downstream while the smaller sediments it carries. These is considerable. The wear and tear fragments travel in saltation or particles in turn get reduced in size of country rocks due to a suspension. The rolling boulders by friction and impact. Attrition can continuous impact of running and pebbles naturally rub occur when the density of medium- water produces lot of rock- themselves against the valley floor to fi ne-grained particles are fragment which is transported during their travel while the dominant with high energy downstream along with discharge. smaller fragments travelling in condition of river. In this process, The fragments produced by the saltation or suspension impinge the grain shape and size are also hydraulic action vary in size from periodically upon the floor of the modified. large boulders to fine silts and clay. river valley. Such impacts bring These are subsequently about a mechanical wear and tear transported along with the flow of the rock forming the base and until they drop down and settle banks of the channel. At the same under suitable conditions. time, the impinging rock-fragments themselves are worn out. Landforms Developed by Erosion by Water ▪ Waterfall ▪ Valley ▪ Meander ▪ Braided Channel ▪ Ox-bow lake ▪ Waterfalls Falling of stream water from a height is called waterfall. Waterfalls are found in the upper course of a river during the initial process of erosion. They usually occur where a band of soft rock is ahead of hard rock. Waterfalls may often start as rapids. As the river passes over the hard rock, the soft rock ahead is eroded more quickly than the hard rock, thus leaving the hard rock elevated above the stream bed below. Consequently, a step in the river bed develops which grows further with the river flow over the hard rock step (cap rock), termed as vertical drop. The drop gets steeper as the river erodes the soft rock beneath by processes such as abrasion and hydraulic action. A plunge pool forms at the base of the waterfall. This erosion gradually undercuts the hard rock and the plunge pool gets bigger due to further hydraulic action and abrasion. Eventually, the hard cap rock is unsupported and collapses. The rocks that fall into the plunge pool will continue to enlarge it by abrasion as they are swirled around. A steep-sided valley known as a gorge is left behind and as the process continues, the waterfall gradually retreats upstream. ▪ Waterfalls V5-1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6t2FllizRN4&ab_channel=AmitSengupta  Pagsanjan Falls Bolinao Falls Laguna Pangasinan https://yoorekka.com/magazine/metro-manila/2018/04/05/10-best-waterfalls-in-the- philippines-2018 https://www.viator.com/en-PH/tours/Luzon/Pagsanjan-Falls-Adventure-from- Manila/d26182-5712MNLA04 Maria Cristina Falls Tinago Falls Lanao del Norte Lanao del Norte https://triptheislands.com/destinations/the-must-see- https://au.hotels.com/go/philippines/maria-cristina-falls three-biggest-waterfalls-in-the-philippines/ ▪ Valley Valleys are one of the most common landforms on the Earth and are formed through erosion or the gradual wearing down of the land by water. In river valleys for example, the rive