Foundations Of Research Lecture 1 PDF

FOUNDATIONS OF RESEARCH Lecture 1  Foundation: why do research Increasing new knowledge; use of existing knowledge in new or creative ways Social research affects our daily lives in different ways – Public policy, health, safety, political perceptions, business surveys...

FOUNDATIONS OF RESEARCH Lecture 1  Foundation: why do research Increasing new knowledge; use of existing knowledge in new or creative ways Social research affects our daily lives in different ways – Public policy, health, safety, political perceptions, business surveys, personal lives Not 100% foolproof, since ‘absolute truth’ not guaranteed everytime Alternatives to social sciences research 1. Personal experience and common sense – extremely convincing but can lead to propoganda, cons or fraud, political manipulation or advertising gimmicks (case of the death penalty) These are some of the effects of miperceptions using common sense: – Overgeneralization – when we have a little evidence and want to apply it to everything – Selective observation – when we take special notice of certain people or events and then generalize from them – Premature closure – jumping to conclusion even though research isn’t completed – Halo effect – when we overgeneralize from what we believe to be highly positive or prestigious – False consensus – we often tend to think that our views are in line with what most other people think Alternatives to social sciences research 2. Experts and authorities – we often accept something as true based on the views of experts or those in authority – However, there are limitations – especially when they try to speak on ’other’areas (sports stars endorsing products) or even experts in the same field contradicting each other (health and wellness advice) 3. Popular and media messages – the media has a very powerful hold on us but often perpetuate myths or stereotypes (they need to sell newspapers) Safety advocates publicize and distort statistical information in the media to encourage people to drive more carefully What we see on TV or internet or visually in photos shape our thinking 4. Ideological beliefs and values – often very powerful and used by policymakers to justify their decisions. People wedded to a certain ideology would use those lenses to view the world and as such would act accordingly (religion)  Using Science Social sciences research relies on the process and evidence of science Social-cultural sciences such as anthropology, economics, human geography, political science and sociology involve the study of human social-cultural life: beliefs, behaviours, relationships etc. Social sciences sometimes referred to as ‘soft sciences’, not because of lack of rigor but rather because human social life, as their subject matter, is highly fluid, formidable to observe and difficult to measure precisely Has its genesis in the Age of Enlightenment and later advanced by the Industrial Revolution  Combines assumptions about the world, accumulated understandings; an orientation towards knowledge, and many specific procedures, techniques and instruments.  The knowledge that science yields is organized into theories and grounded in empirical data.  Using science Many people confuse theory with opinion, unfounded belief, or wild guess. “Whereas a scientist understands theory to be a well-grounded opinion... The general public understands it as ‘just a theory,’ no more valid than any other opinion on the matter” (Yankelovich, 2003:8). Social theory is a coherent system of logically consistent and interconnected ideas used to condense and organize knowledge (a map that helps us better visualize the complexity in the world, see connections, and explain why things happen).  Empirical refers to evidence or observations grounded in human sensory experience: touch, sight, hearing, smell, and taste. Scientific researchers cannot use their senses to observe directly some aspects of the world (e.g., intelligence, attitudes, opinions, emotions, power, authority, quarks, black holes of space, force fields, gravity).  Data are the forms of empirical evidence or information carefully collected according to the rules or procedures of science.  Data or empirical observations can be quantitative (i.e., expressed precisely as numbers) or qualitative (i.e., expressed as words, images, or objects).  We use data to determine whether a theory is true and we should retain it, or, it is false and needs adjustments or can be discarded.  Scientific method, attitude or orientation The scientific method is not one thing; it is a collection of ideas, rules, techniques, and approaches used by the scientific community. It grows out of a consensus formed within the community (values and norms). It is important to grasp the orientation or attitude of science instead of a “scientific method.” The scientific orientation tends simultaneously to be precise and logical, adopt a long- term view, be flexible and open ended, and be willing to share information widely (see Yankelovich, 2003). By contrast, non-scientific thinking is impatient with pursuing great accuracy or rigor, wants definite immediate answers to particular issues that are current now, and tends to be rather possessive and apprehensive about freely sharing everything.  Science as a Transformative Process In the research process, social scientists apply various scientific methods to transform ideas, hunches, and questions, sometimes called hypotheses, into new knowledge. Thus, the social scientific research process essentially transforms our ideas, theories, guesses, or questions into a “finished product” with real value: new knowledge. The new knowledge can improve our understanding of the social world and its operation. It might be used to help solve problems or to expand future knowledge and understanding. Varieties of Social Research Some social scientific research involves quantitative data, (i.e., data in the form of numbers), but other research uses qualitative data (i.e., non-numerical) without statistics. Both approaches use multiple research techniques (e.g., survey, interview, ethnography) to gather and analyze empirical data. Despite some real differences between quantitative and qualitative research, they overlap a great deal  Comparison Quantitative Qualitative Measure objective facts Construct social reality, cultural meaning Focus on variables Focus on interactive processes, events Reliability a key factor Authenticity the key factor Value free Values present and explicit Separate theory and data Theory and data fused Independent of context Situationally constrained Many cases, subjects Few cases, subjects Statistical analysis Thematic analysis Researcher detached Researcher involved  Comparison Both approaches share core scientific principles, but they also differ in significant ways. Each approach has its strengths and limitations. There are topics or issues where they excel Social scientists who do quantitative or qualitative research try to avoid misjudgements All social scientists gather data systematically, make careful comparisons, and use critical thinking. By understanding both approaches, you can best understand the full range of social scientific research and use them in complementary ways. The ideal is to conduct a multimethod study that draws on the strengths of both the quantitative and qualitative approaches, but this rarely happens for several reasons. – Mixing approaches is more time consuming. – Few researchers have expertise in more than one approach  Steps in the research process To conduct a study, we follow a sequence of steps; however, the exact sequence and specific steps vary according to whether we follow a quantitative or qualitative approach and the type of social research study we are conducting. Quantitative – Select a topic – Focus the question – Design the study – Collect data – Analyze the data – Interpret the data – Inform others  Qualitative - approach follows a slightly different set of steps than they use in quantitative studies. These steps also vary according to the specific qualitative research methods used.  In addition, this approach is more fluid and less linear, or step by step. Acknowledge self and context Adopt a perspective Design a study, and collect, analyze and interpret data Inform others  T H EO RY A N D RESEA RC H TYPES O F RESEARCH;FORMS O F EX PLAN ATIO N ;UN ITS O F AN ALYSIS; RELATIO N SHIPSAN D ASSO C IATIO N S. LECTURE 2  Social research can be organized in several why we conduct a study; ways: the number of cases and how we examine them; experimental versus nonexperimental, how we incorporate time; case study versus cross-case research, and deciding which techniques we deploy qualitative versus quantitative. to gather data. We can organize the many kinds of studies You can position a single research study on along five dimensions. each of the dimensions of social research. how we use a study’s findings and its primary audience;  UNDERSTANDING DIMENSIONS OF RESEARCH First, they make it easier to understand research reports that you hear about or read in scholarly journals. After you recognize a study’s dimensions,you can quickly grasp what a study says and how it was conducted. Second, when you conduct your own study,you must make many decisions. You can think of the dimensions as decision points you will encounter as you develop a specific research plan. To make good decisions, you should be aware of trade-offs and the strengths and weaknesses at each decision point.Additionally,the dimensions are interrelated. Some dimensions tend to go together (e.g.,study goal and a data collection technique). As you learn about the dimensions,you can begin to see how best to combine dimensions to address specific research questions of interest. BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH AS P E C T B AS I C APPLIED Primary Audiences Scientific community Practicioners, participants (other researchers) or supervisors (nonresearchers) Evaluators Research peers Practicioners, supervisors Autonomy of Researcher High Low moderate Research Rigour Very high Varies, moderate Highest Priority Verified truth Relevance Purpose Create new knowledge Resolves a practical problem Success indicated by Publication and impact Direct application to on knowledge/scientists address a specific concern/problem  TYPES OF RESEARCH PURPOSE OF RESEARCH U SE A N D A U D IEN C E O F RESEA RC H Explore Basic Describe Applied Explain Evaluation W IT H IN O R A C R O S S C A S ES Action Social Impact Case Study Research Across Case Research S I N G L E O R MULTIPLE P O I N T S I N D ATA C O LLEC T IO N TEC H N IQ U ES T IME Quantitative Data Cross-Sectional Experiment Longitudinal Survey Time series Nonreactive (content analysis,secondary Panel analysis,existing statistics) C ohort Q ualitative D ata Case Study Field (ethnography, participant observation) Historical-comparative  PURPOSE O F RESEARCH TYPES EXPLORATORY DESCRIPTIV E Become familiar with the basic facts, Provide a detailed,highly accurate picture setting,and concerns Locate new data that contradict past data Create a general mental picture of Create a set of categories or classify types conditions Clarify a sequence of steps or stages Formulate and focus questions for future Document a causal process or mechanism research Report on the background or context of a situation Generate new ideas,conjectures,or hypotheses EXPLA NATORY Determine the feasibility of conducting Test a theory’s predictions or principle research Elaborate and enrich a theory’s explanation Develop techniques for measuring and Extend a theory to new issues or topics locating future data Support or refute an explanation or prediction Link issues or topics to a general principle Determine which of several explanations is best  SO CIAL THEO RY – DIFFEREN T IDEAS 1.A theory is a logically connected set of general propositions that establishes a connection between two or more variables. 2. A theoryis an explanation of a specific social phenomenon that identifies a set of causally relevant factors or conditions. 3.A theory provides insights into the real meaning of a social phenomenon by offering an illuminating interpretation and by telling us “what it is all about.” 4.A theory is what a famous social thinker really meant. 5.A theory is an entire worldview, or a way of seeing, interpreting, and understanding events in the world. 6.A theory is a criticism based on a political moral viewpoint; it presents and stands for a set of beliefs-values from which it critiques the position and arguments of opponents. 7. A theory is a philosophical commentary on key questions or issues about core issues of how we develop knowledge about the social world (e.g. how we really construct a sense of social reality).  HOW EVER … Theories are not static.We are constantly modifying older theories and developing new ones. Theories come in many shapes and sizes. Some are broad systems of thought while others are narrow and specific explanations of one particular issue. At their core,we use social theories to organize and systematize our thinking and to deepen and extend understanding. Because they organize knowledge, theories also become away to communicate effectively with one another. Social science theory is often more complex and abstract than a typical layperson’s theory;however, aprinciple of good theory,parsimony,is helpful. It means that simpler is better,that better theories have minimal complexity. Good theories lack redundant or excess elements Most research studies have theory somewhere. The question is less whether we use theory in a study than how we use it,or which type of theory we use.  The place of theory is less prominent in applied or descriptive research than in basic or explanatory research.The studies we conduct will be better designed and stronger once we are aware of how theory and research fit together. Theory also helps to sharpen our thinking about what we are doing in a study. If we are clear and explicit about our study’s theory, others will find it easier to read and understand our research. One indicator of a weak research study is that its theory remains unclear,incomplete, or poorly formulated. PARTS AN D ASPECTS O F SO CIAL THEO FiveAspects of SocialTheory RY Four Parts of SocialTheory 1.D irection of theorizing.D eductive (abstract to concrete) or inductive (concrete to abstract) 1.Assumptions 2.Level of analysis.Micro level,meso level, 2.Concepts.Vary by level of abstraction macro level (concrete versus abstract),single versus concept clusters,simple versus complex 3.Focus of theory.Substantive theory or formal (e.g.,classifications, typologies), and scope theory (narrow versus broad) 4.Forms of explanation.Causal, structural 3.Relationships. Forms of relationships, (sequential, network, functional), or interpretative propositions,and hypotheses 5.Range of theorizing.Empirical generalization, 4.Units of analysis middle range theory, or theoretical framework  RELATIONSHIPS Social theories are more than collections of assumptions and concepts;they also specify relationships among the concepts. They tell us whether the concepts are connected to one another,and,if so,how. By outlining an entire complex of assumptions, concepts, and relationships, a theory provides a complete picture of why specific relationships do or do not exist. KINDS OF RELATIONSHIPS Beyond telling us whether concepts are or are not related,theories specify the relationships. For example,a theory may tell us whether a relationship is strong or weak,direct or indirect,positive or negative.  PROPOSITIONS & HYPOTHESES Social theories contain propositions about the relationships among concepts. A proposition is atheoretical statement that two or more factors or concepts are related and the type of relationship it is. It is a belief that may or may not have been tested. A major purpose of doing research is to find out whether a theory’s proposition conforms to empirical evidence or data. Some theoretical propositions are in the form of assumptions; others can be tested with empirical data. A hypothesis is an empirically testable version of a proposition. It is a tentative statement about a relationship because when we start a study, we are uncertain as to whether the hypothesis actually holds in the empirical world. By empirically evaluating a hypothesis, we learn whether atheoretical proposition is supported,or we may decide to revise it or remove it from the theory entirely. While many research studies are designed to test hypotheses, some types of research proceed without ahypothesis.  UN ITS O FANALYSIS The social world comprises many units, such as individual people, groups, organizations, movements, institutions, countries, and so forth.Researchers tailor theoretical concepts to apply to one or more of these units of analysis. DEDUCTIVE To theorize in a deductive direction,we start with abstract concepts or a theoretical proposition that outlines the logical connection.among concepts. We move next to evaluate the concepts and propositions against concrete evidence. We go from ideas,theory,or amental picture toward observable empirical evidence  INDUCTIVE To theorize in an inductive direction,we begin with observing the empirical world and then reflecting on what is taking place and thinking in increasingly more abstract ways. We move toward theoretical concepts and propositions. We can begin with ageneral topic and a few vague ideas that we later refine and elaborate into more precise concepts when operating inductively. We build from empirical observations toward more abstract thinking LEVELS O FAN ALYSIS Micro-level theory Social theory focusing on the micro level of social life that occurs over short durations (e.g.,face-to-face interactions and encounters among individuals or small groups). Macro-level theory Social theory focusing on the macro level of social life (e.g.,social institutions, major sectors of society, entire societies, or world regions) and processes that occur over long durations (many years, multiple decades,or a century or longer). Meso-level theory Social theory focusing on the relations,processes, and structures at a midlevel of social life (e.g.,organizations, movements,and communities) and events operating over moderate durations (many months, several years, or a decade).  PREDICTIO N AND EXPLANATIO N The primary purpose of theory is to explain. However,explanation has two meanings:theoretical and ordinary. Researchers focus on theoretical explanation, alogical argument that tells why something takes aspecific form or why it occurs. Usually when we do this,we refer to a general rule or principle,and we connect it to a theoretical argument with many connections among concepts. Prediction is a statement that something will occur. An explanation logically connects what occurs in a specific situation to amore abstract or basic principle about“how things work” to answer the why question. The particular situation is shown to be an instance or specific case of the more general principle.It is easier to predict than to explain,and an explanation has more logical power than prediction because good explanations also predict. A specific explanation rarely predicts more than one outcome, but competing explanations can predict the same outcome.  Theoretical explanations take three forms: causal structural interpretative Each explains, or answers, the question of why events occur and each connects a specific case to some type of general principle.  CAUSAL EXPLANATION A causal explanation indicates acause-effect relationship among concepts/ variables. We use this type of explanation in everyday language,although everyday language tends to be rather sloppy and ambiguous. Here is acausal explanation:You say that poverty causes crime or that weakening societal morals causes divorce to increase. These are elementary causal explanations. Social scientists try to be more precise and exact when they discuss causal relations. They also try to determine how or why the causal process works (e.g.,how and why poverty causes crime). STRUCTURAL EXPLANTION In a causal explanation,one or more factors may cause aresponse in other factors. This is like one ball that rolls and hits others,causing them to begin rolling.In contrast, the logic of a structural explanation locates asocial process, event, or factor within a larger structure. The structure is like a spiderweb,a wheel with spokes,or a machine with interconnected parts. A structural explanation explains social life by noting how one part fits within the larger structure.  INTERPRETATIVE EXPLANATION The purpose of interpretive explanation is to foster understanding. It does so by placing what we wish to explain (e.g.,a social relationship,event,cultural practice) within a specific social context and setting that have a meaning system. The explanatory goal is for others to mentally grasp how some area of the social world operates and to place what we want to explain within that world. This goal is reached by helping others comprehend what we want to explain within an entire worldview and system of meaning LITERATURE REVIEW  WHAT IS IT Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored while researching aparticular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within a larger field of study. A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary,and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated. ANALYTICAL FEATURES Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations, Trace the intellectual progression of the field,including major debates, Depending on the situation,evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant research,or Usually in the conclusion of a literature review,identify where gaps exist in how a problem has been researched to date.  PURPOSE Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem being studied. Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration. Identify new ways to interpret prior research. Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature. Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies. Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort. Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research. Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].  STEPS When you write a thesis, dissertation, or research paper, you will have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge.The literature review gives you a chance to: Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate  STEP 1:SEARCH FOR RELEVANT LITERATURE Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic. If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions. STEP 2:EVA LUATE A N D SELEC T SO U RCES You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic – you’ll have to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions. For each publication,ask yourself: W hat question or problem is the author addressing? What are the key concepts and how are they defined? What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach? What are the results and conclusions of the study?  How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm,add to, or challenge established knowledge? How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its key insights and arguments? W hat are the strengths and weaknesses of the research? Make sure the sources you use are credible,and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research. You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar – a high citation count means the article has been influential in the fieldand should certainly be included in your literature review. The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you usually only review recent literature, but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective (for example, to trace how aconcept has changed in meaning over time). Take notes and cite your sources As you read,you should also begin the writing process.Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review. It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism. It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography,where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source.This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process. STEP 3:ID EN TIFY TH EM ES, D EBATES,A N D G APS To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure,you need to understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read.Based on your reading and notes,you can look for: Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time? Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature? Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree? Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field? Gaps: what is missing from the literature?Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed? This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.  STEP 4: O U TLIN E YO U R LITERATURE REVIEW’S STRUCTURE There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review.You should have a rough idea of your strategy before you start writing. Depending on the length of your literature review,you can combine several of these strategies (for example,your overall structure might be thematic,but each theme is discussed chronologically). Chronological The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time.However, if you choose this strategy,be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field.Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred. Thematic If you have found some recurring central themes,you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, ifyou are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy,language barriers,cultural attitudes,legal status,and economic access.  Methodological If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods,you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example: Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship Divide the literature into sociological,historical,and cultural sources Theoretical A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework.You can use it to discuss various theories,models,and definitions of key concepts. You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach,or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.  STEP 5: W RITE YO U R LITERATURE REVIEW Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction, a main body, and a conclusion.What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review. Introduction The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review. PARTS – INTRODUCTION Dissertation literature review - If you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate your central problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly context.You can emphasize the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have focused on the problem of x”) or highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been much research on x,few researchers have taken y into consideration”).  BO DY Depending on the length of your literature review,you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach. As you write,you can follow these tips: Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers—add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts C O N C LU S IO N In the conclusion,you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance. Dissertation literature review If the literature review is part of your thesis or dissertation,show how your research addresses gaps and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you havedrawn on existing theories and methods to build aframework for your research.  ETHICS IN RESEARCH Ethics is typically associated with morality, and both words concern matters of right and wrong. The problem in social research,is that ethical considerations are not always apparent Political considerations in research are subtle, ambiguous,and arguable. Although social researchers have an ethical norm that participation in research should be voluntary,this norm can clearly grow out of a country’s political norms which protects civil liberties. Anyone involved in social science research, then,needs to be aware of the general agreements shared by researchers about what is proper and improper in the conduct of scientific inquiry  VOLUNTARY PARTICPATION Social research, often requires that people reveal personal information about themselves— information that may be unknown to their friends and associates Participation must therefore be voluntary, no one should be forced to participate. This norm is far easier to accept in theory than to apply in practice, however. This norm of voluntary participation, though,goes directly against several scientific concerns. In the most general terms, the scientific goal of generalizability is threatened if experimental subjects or survey respondents are only the kind of people who willingly participate in such things  Field research has its own ethical dilemmas. Very often the researcher cannot even reveal that a study is being done, for fear that that revelation might significantly affect the social processes being studied. Clearly, the subjects of study in such cases are not given the opportunity to volunteer or refusal to participate. Human research should never injure the people being studied, regardless of whether they volunteer for the study. In social research practice,this often concerns being careful not to reveal information that would embarrass subjects or endanger their lives, friendships, jobs etc. Increasingly, the ethical norms of voluntary participation and no harm toparticipants have become formalized in the concept of informed consent. This norm means that subjects must base their voluntary participation in research projects on a full understanding of the possible risks involved.  Another possible source of harm to subjects lies in the analysis and reporting of data. Sometimes,research subjects read the books published about the studies they participated in. Reasonably sophisticated subjects can locate themselves in the various indexes and tables. Having done so, they may find themselves characterized—though not identified by name,such as being bigoted,unpatriotic and irreligious. Like voluntary participation,avoiding harm to people is easy in theory but often difficult in practice. Sensitivity to the issue and experience with its applications,however, should improve the researcher’s tact in delicate areas of research. If revealing participants’ survey responses would injure them in any way,adherence to this norm becomes all the more important. Two techniques—anonymity and confidentiality—assist researchers in this regard  ANONYMITY A research project guarantees anonymity when the researcher—not just the people who read about the research—cannot identify a given response with a given respondent. This implies that a typical interview-survey respondent can never be considered anonymous, because an interviewer collects the information from an identifiable respondent. An example of anonymity is a mail survey in which no identification numbers are put on the questionnaires before their return to the research office. CONFIDENTIALITY A research project guarantees confidentiality when the researcher can identify a given person’s responses but essentially promises not to do so publicly. In an interview survey, for example, the researcher could make public the income reported by a given respondent, but the respondent is assured that this will not be done.  In a survey, for example, all names and addresses should be removed from questionnaires and replaced by identification numbers. An identification file should be created that links numbers to names to permit the later correction of missing or contradictory information,but this file should not be available except for legitimate purposes. Similarly,in an interview survey you may need to identify respondents initially so that you can recontact them to verify that the interview was conducted and perhaps to get information that was missing in the original interview. As soon as you’ve verified an interview and assured yourself that you don’t need any further information from the respondent, however, you can safely remove all identifying information from the interview booklet.  DECEPTION Handling your own identity as a researcher can also be tricky. Sometimes it’s useful and even necessary to identify yourself as a researcher to those you want to study. Even when you must conceal your research identity,you need to consider that deceiving people is unethical, deception within social research needs to be justified by compelling scientific or administrative concerns. Even then, the justification will be arguable. One appropriate solution researchers have found is to debrief subjects following an experiment. Debriefing entails interviews to discover any problems generated by the research experience so that those problems can be corrected. Even though subjects can’t be told the true purpose of the study prior to their participation in it,there’s usually no reason they can’t know afterward.  ANALYSIS A N D REPORTING In addition to their ethical obligations to subjects, researchers have ethical obligations to their colleagues in the scientific community. These obligations concern the analysis of data and the way the results are reported. In any rigorous study, the researcher should be more familiar than anyone else with the study’s technical limitations and failures. Researchers have an obligation to make such shortcomings known to their readers INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARDS (IRB) The issue of research ethics in studies involving humans is now also governed by law The chief responsibility of an IRB is to ensure that the risks faced by human participants in research are minimal. In some cases, the IRB may ask the researcher to revise the study design; in others, the IRB may refuse to approve a study. Where some minimal risks are deemed unavoidable,researchers are required to prepare an“informed consent” form that describes those risks clearly.  SURVEY PRACTICES CONDEMNED Requiring a monetary payment or soliciting monetary contributions from members of the public as part of a research process. Offering products or services for sale or using participant contacts as a means of generating sales leads. Revealing the identity of individual respondents to a survey or participants in a research process without their permission. Different types of write-in,call-in, and interactive polls...these “polls” report the opinions of only those people who called in,and not those of the general public Conducting a so-called “push poll,” a telemarketing technique in which telephone calls are used to canvass potential voters, feeding them false or misleading “information” about a candidate under the pretence of taking a poll to see how this “information” affects voter preferences.  POLITICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH Weber coined the phrase value-free sociology and urged that sociology, like other sciences, needed to be unencumbered by personal values if it were to make a special contribution to society. Some areas of politics in research: Social research and race Politics of sexual research Politics and the census PLAGIARISM - HTTPS://WWW.BOWDOIN.EDU/DEAN-OF-STUDENTS/CONDUCT- REVIEW- BOARD/ACADEMIC-HONESTY-AND-PLAGIARISM/COMMON-TYPES-OF- PLAGIARISM.HTML Direct - Direct plagiarism is the word-for-word transcription of a section of someone else’s work,without attribution and without quotation marks. Self - Self-plagiarism occurs when a student submits his or her own previous work,or mixes parts of previous works, without permission from all the lecturers involved  Mosaic - Mosaic Plagiarism occurs when a student borrows phrases from a source without using quotation marks, or finds synonyms for the author’s language while keeping to the same general structure and meaning of the original Unintentional - Accidental plagiarism occurs when a person neglects to cite their sources, or misquotes their sources, or unintentionally paraphrases a source by using similar words, groups of words, and/or sentence structure without attribution