Structure of the Atom PDF

C hapter 4 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM In Chapter 3, we have learnt that atoms and From these activities, can we conclude molecules are the fundamental building that on rubbing two objects together, they blocks of matter. The existence of different...

C hapter 4 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM In Chapter 3, we have learnt that atoms and From these activities, can we conclude molecules are the fundamental building that on rubbing two objects together, they blocks of matter. The existence of different become electrically charged? Where does this kinds of matter is due to different atoms charge come from? This question can be constituting them. Now the questions arise: answered by knowing that an atom is divisible (i) What makes the atom of one element and consists of charged particles. different from the atom of another element? Many scientists contributed in revealing and (ii) Are atoms really indivisible, as proposed by Dalton, or are there smaller the presence of charged particles in an atom. constituents inside the atom? We shall find It was known by 1900 that the atom was out the answers to these questions in this indivisible particle but contained at least one chapter. We will learn about sub-atomic sub-atomic particle – the electron identified by particles and the various models that have J.J. Thomson. Even before the electron was been proposed to explain how these particles identified, E. Goldstein in 1886 discovered the are arranged within the atom. presence of new radiations in a gas discharge A major challenge before the scientists at and called them canal rays. These rays were the end of the 19th century was to reveal the positively charged radiations which ultimately structure of the atom as well as to explain its led to the discovery of another sub-atomic important properties. The elucidation of the particle. This sub-atomic particle had a charge, structure of atoms is based on a series of equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to that experiments. One of the first indications that atoms are of the electron. Its mass was approximately not indivisible, comes from studying static 2000 times as that of the electron. It was given electricity and the condition under which the name of proton. In general, an electron is electricity is conducted by dif ferent represented as ‘e–’ and a proton as ‘p+’. The substances. mass of a proton is taken as one unit and its charge as plus one. The mass of an electron is 4.1 Charged Particles in Matter considered to be negligible and its charge is minus one. For understanding the nature of charged It seemed that an atom was composed of particles in matter, let us carry out the protons and electrons, mutually balancing following activities: their charges. It also appeared that the protons Activity ______________ 4.1 were in the interior of the atom, for whereas electrons could easily be removed off but A. Comb dry hair. Does the comb then not protons. Now the big question was: attract small pieces of paper? B. Rub a glass rod with a silk cloth and what sort of structure did these particles of bring the rod near an inflated balloon. the atom form? We will find the answer to Observe what happens. this question below. 2024-25 Q uestions J.J. Thomson (1856– 1. What are canal rays? 1940), a British 2. If an atom contains one electron physicist, was born in and one proton, will it carry any Cheetham Hill, a suburb charge or not? of Manchester, on 18 December 1856. He was awarded the Nobel prize in Physics in 1906 for his work on the 4.2 The Structure of an Atom discovery of electrons. He directed the Cavendish Laboratory at We have learnt Dalton’s atomic theory in Cambridge for 35 years and seven of his Chapter 3, which suggested that the atom research assistants subsequently won was indivisible and indestructible. But the Nobel prizes. discovery of two fundamental particles (electrons and protons) inside the atom, led Thomson proposed that: to the failure of this aspect of Dalton’s atomic (i) An atom consists of a positively theory. It was then considered necessary to charged sphere and the electrons are know how electrons and protons are arranged embedded in it. within an atom. For explaining this, many (ii) The negative and positive charges are scientists proposed various atomic models. equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a J.J. Thomson was the first one to propose a whole is electrically neutral. model for the structure of an atom. Although Thomson’s model explained that atoms are electrically neutral, the results of 4.2.1 THOMSON’S MODEL OF AN ATOM experiments carried out by other scientists Thomson proposed the model of an atom to could not be explained by this model, as we be similar to that of a Christmas pudding. will see below. The electrons, in a sphere of positive charge, were like currants (dry fruits) in a spherical 4.2.2 RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF AN ATOM Christmas pudding. We can also think of a Ernest Rutherford was interested in knowing watermelon, the positive charge in the atom how the electrons are arranged within an is spread all over like the red edible part of the watermelon, while the electrons are atom. Rutherford designed an experiment for studded in the positively charged sphere, like this. In this experiment, fast moving alpha the seeds in the watermelon (Fig. 4.1). (α)-particles were made to fall on a thin gold foil. He selected a gold foil because he wanted as thin a layer as possible. This gold foil was about 1000 atoms thick. α-particles are doubly-charged helium ions. Since they have a mass of 4 u, the fast-moving α-particles have a considerable amount of energy. It was expected that α-particles would be deflected by the sub-atomic particles in the gold atoms. Since the α-particles were much heavier than the protons, he did Fig.4.1: Thomson’s model of an atom not expect to see large deflections. STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 39 2024-25  He will hear a sound when each stone strikes the wall. If he repeats this ten times, he will hear the sound ten times. But if a blind-folded child were to throw stones at a barbed-wire fence, most of the stones would not hit the fencing and no sound would be heard. This is because there are lots of gaps in the fence which allow the stone to pass through them. Following a similar reasoning, Rutherford concluded from the α-particle scattering experiment that— (i) Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most of the α-particles passed through the gold foil without getting deflected. (ii) Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that the positive charge of the atom occupies very little Fig. 4.2: Scattering of α-particles by a gold foil space. (iii) A very small fraction of α-particles But, the α-particle scattering experiment were deflected by 1800, indicating that gave totally unexpected results (Fig. 4.2). The all the positive charge and mass of the following observations were made: gold atom were concentrated in a very (i) Most of the fast moving α-particles small volume within the atom. passed straight through the gold foil. From the data he also calculated that the (ii) Some of the α-particles were deflected radius of the nucleus is about 105 times less by the foil by small angles. than the radius of the atom. (iii) Surprisingly one out of every 12000 On the basis of his experiment, particles appeared to rebound. Rutherford put forward the nuclear model of In the words of Rutherford, “This result an atom, which had the following features: was almost as incredible as if you fire a (i) There is a positively charged centre in 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it an atom called the nucleus. Nearly all comes back and hits you”. the mass of an atom resides in the nucleus. E. Rutherford (1871–1937) (ii) The electrons revolve around the was born at Spring Grove nucleus in circular paths. on 30 August 1871. He was (iii) The size of the nucleus is very small known as the ‘Father’ of as compared to the size of the atom. nuclear physics. He is Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of famous for his work on the atom radioactivity and the discovery of the nucleus of an atom with The revolution of the electron in a circular orbit the gold foil experiment. He got the Nobel is not expected to be stable. Any particle in a prize in chemistry in 1908. circular orbit would undergo acceleration. During acceleration, charged particles would radiate energy. Thus, the revolving electron Let us think of an activity in an open field would lose energy and finally fall into the to understand the implications of this nucleus. If this were so, the atom should be experiment. Let a child stand in front of a highly unstable and hence matter would not wall with his eyes closed. Let him throw exist in the form that we know. We know that stones at the wall from a distance. atoms are quite stable. 40 SCIENCE 2024-25  Q 4.2.3 BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM uestions In order to overcome the objections raised 1. On the basis of Thomson’s model against Rutherford’s model of the atom, of an atom, explain how the atom Neils Bohr put forward the following is neutral as a whole. postulates about the model of an atom: 2. On the basis of Rutherford’s (i) Only certain special orbits known as model of an atom, which sub- discrete orbits of electrons, are allowed atomic particle is present in the inside the atom. nucleus of an atom? (ii) While revolving in discrete orbits the 3. Draw a sketch of Bohr’s model electrons do not radiate energy. of an atom with three shells. 4. What do you think would be the observation if the α -particle Neils Bohr (1885–1962) scattering experiment is carried was born in Copenhagen out using a foil of a metal other on 7 October 1885. He was than gold? appointed professor of physics at Copenhagen 4.2.4 NEUTRONS University in 1916. He got In 1932, J. Chadwick discovered another sub- the Nobel prize for his work atomic particle which had no charge and a on the structure of atom in mass nearly equal to that of a proton. It was 1922. Among Professor eventually named as neutron. Neutrons are Bohr’s numerous writings, three appearing present in the nucleus of all atoms, except as books are: hydrogen. In general, a neutron is (i) The Theory of Spectra and Atomic represented as ‘n’. The mass of an atom is Constitution, (ii) Atomic Theory and, therefore given by the sum of the masses of (iii) The Description of Nature. protons and neutrons present in the nucleus. uestions Q These orbits or shells are called energy levels. Energy levels in an atom are shown in 1. Name the three sub-atomic Fig. 4.3. particles of an atom. 2. Helium atom has an atomic mass of 4 u and two protons in its nucleus. How many neutrons does it have? 4.3 How are Electrons Distributed in Different Orbits (Shells)? The distribution of electrons into different orbits of an atom was suggested by Bohr and Bury. Fig. 4.3: A few energy levels in an atom The following rules are followed for writing the number of electrons in different energy These orbits or shells are represented by levels or shells: the letters K,L,M,N,… or the numbers, (i) The maximum number of electrons n=1,2,3,4,…. present in a shell is given by the STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 41 2024-25  formula 2n 2, where ‘n’ is the orbit The composition of atoms of the first number or energy level index, 1,2,3,…. eighteen elements is given in Table 4.1. Hence the maximum number of uestions Q electrons in different shells are as follows: 1. Write the distribution of electrons first orbit or K-shell will be = 2 × 12 = 2, in carbon and sodium atoms. second orbit or L-shell will be = 2 × 22 = 8, 2. If K and L shells of an atom are third orbit or M-shell will be = 2 × 32 = 18, full, then what would be the total fourth orbit or N-shell will be = 2 × 42 number of electrons in the atom? = 32, and so on. (ii) The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the outermost orbit is 8. 4.4 Valency (iii) Electrons are not accommodated in a We have learnt how the electrons in an atom given shell, unless the inner shells are are arranged in different shells/orbits. The filled. That is, the shells are filled in a electrons present in the outermost shell of step-wise manner. an atom are known as the valence electrons. Atomic structure of the first eighteen From the Bohr-Bury scheme, we also know elements is shown schematically in Fig. 4.4. that the outermost shell of an atom can Fig.4.4: Schematic atomic structure of the first eighteen elements accommodate a maximum of 8 electrons. It Activity ______________ 4.2 was observed that the atoms of elements, completely filled with 8 electrons in the Make a static atomic model displaying outermost shell show little chemical activity. electronic configuration of the first In other words, their combining capacity or eighteen elements. valency is zero. Of these inert elements, the 42 SCIENCE 2024-25  Table 4.1: Composition of Atoms of the First Eighteen Elements with Electron Distribution in Various Shells Name of Symbol Atomic Number Number Number Distribution of Vale- Element Number of of of Electrons ncy Protons Neutrons Electrons K L M N Hydrogen H 1 1 - 1 1 - - - 1 Helium He 2 2 2 2 2 - - - 0 Lithium Li 3 3 4 3 2 1 - - 1 Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 2 2 - - 2 Boron B 5 5 6 5 2 3 - - 3 Carbon C 6 6 6 6 2 4 - - 4 Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 2 5 - - 3 Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 2 6 - - 2 Fluorine F 9 9 10 9 2 7 - - 1 Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 2 8 - - 0 Sodium Na 11 11 12 11 2 8 1 - 1 Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 2 8 2 - 2 Aluminium Al 13 13 14 13 2 8 3 - 3 Silicon Si 14 14 14 14 2 8 4 - 4 Phosphorus P 15 15 16 15 2 8 5 - 3,5 Sulphur S 16 16 16 16 2 8 6 - 2 Chlorine Cl 17 17 18 17 2 8 7 - 1 Argon Ar 18 18 22 18 2 8 8 0 helium atom has two electrons in its outermost element, that is, the valency discussed in the shell and all other elements have atoms with previous chapter. For example, hydrogen/ eight electrons in the outermost shell. lithium/sodium atoms contain one electron The combining capacity of the atoms of each in their outermost shell, therefore each elements, that is, their tendency to react and one of them can lose one electron. So, they are form molecules with atoms of the same or said to have valency of one. Can you tell, what is valency of magnesium and aluminium? It different elements, was thus explained as an is two and three, respectively, because attempt to attain a fully-filled outermost shell. magnesium has two electrons in its outermost An outermost-shell, which had eight electrons shell and aluminium has three electrons in was said to possess an octet. Atoms would its outermost shell. thus react, so as to achieve an octet in the If the number of electrons in the outermost shell. This was done by sharing, outermost shell of an atom is close to its full gaining or losing electrons. The number of capacity, then valency is determined in a electrons gained, lost or shared so as to make different way. For example, the fluorine atom the octet of electrons in the outermost shell, has 7 electrons in the outermost shell, and its gives us directly the combining capacity of the valency could be 7. But it is easier for STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 43 2024-25 fluorine to gain one electron instead of losing 6 neutrons, 6 u + 6 u = 12 u. Similarly, the seven electrons. Hence, its valency is determined mass of aluminium is 27 u (13 protons+14 by subtracting seven electrons from the octet neutrons). The mass number is defined as the and this gives you a valency of one for fluorine. sum of the total number of protons and Valency can be calculated in a similar manner neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom. It for oxygen. What is the valency of oxygen that is denoted by ‘A’. In the notation for an atom, you get from this calculation? the atomic number, mass number and symbol Therefore, an atom of each element has a of the element are to be written as: definite combining capacity, called its valency. Mass Number Valency of the first eighteen elements is given A in the last column of Table 4.1. Symbol of element X Q uestion Atomic Number Z 1. How will you find the valency 14 For example, nitrogen is written as 7 N. of chlorine, sulphur and magnesium? uestions 4.5 Atomic Number and Mass Number 4.5.1 ATOMIC NUMBER We know that protons are present in the nucleus of an atom. It is the number of Q 4.6 Isotopes 1. If number of electrons in an atom is 8 and number of protons is also 8, then (i) what is the atomic number of the atom? and (ii) what is the charge on the atom? 2. With the help of Table 4.1, find out the mass number of oxygen and sulphur atom. protons of an atom, which determines its atomic number. It is denoted by ‘Z’. All atoms In nature, a number of atoms of some of an element have the same atomic number, elements have been identified, which have the Z. In fact, elements are defined by the number same atomic number but different mass of protons they possess. For hydrogen, Z = 1, numbers. For example, take the case of because in hydrogen atom, only one proton hydrogen atom, it has three atomic species, is present in the nucleus. Similarly, for carbon, Z = 6. Therefore, the atomic number namely protium ( 11 H), deuterium ( 12 H or D) is defined as the total number of protons 3 present in the nucleus of an atom. and tritium ( 1 H or T). The atomic number of each one is 1, but the mass number is 1, 2 4.5.2 MASS NUMBER and 3, respectively. Other such examples are 12 14 35 After studying the properties of the sub- (i) carbon, 6 C and 6 C, (ii) chlorine, 17 Cl atomic particles of an atom, we can conclude 37 that mass of an atom is practically due to and 17 Cl, etc. protons and neutrons alone. These are On the basis of these examples, isotopes present in the nucleus of an atom. Hence are defined as the atoms of the same element, protons and neutrons are also called having the same atomic number but different nucleons. Therefore, the mass of an atom mass numbers. Therefore, we can say that resides in its nucleus. For example, mass of there are three isotopes of hydrogen atom, carbon is 12 u because it has 6 protons and namely protium, deuterium and tritium. 44 SCIENCE 2024-25  Many elements consist of a mixture of Applications isotopes. Each isotope of an element is a pure Since the chemical properties of all the substance. The chemical properties of isotopes of an element are the same, isotopes are similar but their physical normally we are not concerned about properties are different. taking a mixture. But some isotopes have Chlorine occurs in nature in two isotopic special properties which find them useful forms, with masses 35 u and 37 u in the ratio in various fields. Some of them are : of 3:1. Obviously, the question arises: what (i) An isotope of uranium is used as a fuel should we take as the mass of chlorine atom? in nuclear reactors. Let us find out. (ii) An isotope of cobalt is used in the The average atomic mass of chlorine atom, treatment of cancer. on the basis of above data, will be (iii) An isotope of iodine is used in the treatment of goitre.  75 25   35 × 100 + 37 × 100  4.6.1 ISOBARS  Let us consider two elements — calcium,  105 37  142  atomic number 20, and argon, atomic = +  = = 35.5 u  4 4 4  number 18. The number of protons in these atoms is different, but the mass number of The mass of an atom of any natural element both these elements is 40. That is, the total number of nucleons is the same in the atoms is taken as the average mass of all the naturally of this pair of elements. Atoms of different occuring atoms of that element. If an element elements with different atomic numbers, which has no isotopes, then the mass of its atom have the same mass number, are known as would be the same as the sum of protons and isobars. neutrons in it. But if an element occurs in isotopic forms, then we have to know the uestions Q percentage of each isotopic form and then the average mass is calculated. 1. For the symbol H,D and T This does not mean that any one atom of tabulate three sub-atomic chlorine has a fractional mass of 35.5 u. It particles found in each of them. means that if you take a certain amount of 2. Write the electronic chlorine, it will contain both isotopes of configuration of any one pair of chlorine and the average mass is 35.5 u. isotopes and isobars. What you have learnt Credit for the discovery of electron and proton goes to J.J. Thomson and E.Goldstein, respectively. J.J. Thomson proposed that electrons are embedded in a positive sphere. STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 45 2024-25  Rutherford’s alpha-particle scattering experiment led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus. Rutherford’s model of the atom proposed that a very tiny nucleus is present inside the atom and electrons revolve around this nucleus. The stability of the atom could not be explained by this model. Neils Bohr’s model of the atom was more successful. He proposed that electrons are distributed in different shells with discrete energy around the nucleus. If the atomic shells are complete, then the atom will be stable and less reactive. J. Chadwick discovered presence of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. So, the three sub-atomic particles of an atom are: (i) electrons, (ii) protons and (iii) neutrons. Electrons are negatively charged, protons are positively charged and neutrons 1 have no charges. The mass of an electron is about times 2000 the mass of an hydrogen atom. The mass of a proton and a neutron is taken as one unit each. Shells of an atom are designated as K,L,M,N,…. Valency is the combining capacity of an atom. The atomic number of an element is the same as the number of protons in the nucleus of its atom. The mass number of an atom is equal to the number of nucleons in its nucleus. Isotopes are atoms of the same element, which have different mass numbers. Isobars are atoms having the same mass number but different atomic numbers. Elements are defined by the number of protons they possess. Exercises 1. Compare the properties of electrons, protons and neutrons. 2. What are the limitations of J.J. Thomson’s model of the atom? 3. What are the limitations of Rutherford’s model of the atom? 4. Describe Bohr’s model of the atom. 5. Compare all the proposed models of an atom given in this chapter. 6. Summarise the rules for writing of distribution of electrons in various shells for the first eighteen elements. 7. Define valency by taking examples of silicon and oxygen. 46 SCIENCE 2024-25  8. Explain with examples (i) Atomic number, (ii) Mass number, (iii) Isotopes and iv) Isobars. Give any two uses of isotopes. 9. Na+ has completely filled K and L shells. Explain. 10. If bromine atom is available in the form of, say, two isotopes 79 81 35 Br (49.7%) and 35 Br (50.3%), calculate the average atomic mass of bromine atom. 11. The average atomic mass of a sample of an element X is 16.2 u. 16 18 What are the percentages of isotopes 8X and 8 X in the sample? 12. If Z = 3, what would be the valency of the element? Also, name the element. 13. Composition of the nuclei of two atomic species X and Y are given as under X Y Protons = 6 6 Neutrons = 6 8 Give the mass numbers of X and Y. What is the relation between the two species? 14. For the following statements, write T for True and F for False. (a) J.J. Thomson proposed that the nucleus of an atom contains only nucleons. (b) A neutron is formed by an electron and a proton combining together. Therefore, it is neutral. 1 (c) The mass of an electron is about times that of proton. 2000 (d) An isotope of iodine is used for making tincture iodine, which is used as a medicine. Put tick (ü) against correct choice and cross (×) against wrong choice in questions 15, 16 and 17 15. Rutherford’s alpha-particle scattering experiment was responsible for the discovery of (a) Atomic Nucleus (b) Electron (c) Proton (d) Neutron 16. Isotopes of an element have (a) the same physical properties (b) different chemical properties (c) different number of neutrons (d) different atomic numbers. 17. Number of valence electrons in Cl– ion are: (a) 16 (b) 8 (c) 17 (d) 18 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 47 2024-25  18. Which one of the following is a correct electronic configuration of sodium? (a) 2,8 (b) 8,2,1 (c) 2,1,8 (d) 2,8,1. 19. Complete the following table. Atomic Mass Number Number Number Name of Number Number of of of the Atomic Neutrons Protons Electrons Species 9 - 10 - - - 16 32 - - - Sulphur - 24 - 12 - - - 2 - 1 - - - 1 0 1 0 - 48 SCIENCE 2024-25