Fundamentals of Human Resource Management PDF

Fundamentals of human resource management African Studies Centre / University of Groningen / Mzumbe University African Public Administration and Management series, vol. 2 Fundamentals of human resource management Emerging experiences from Africa J...

Fundamentals of human resource management African Studies Centre / University of Groningen / Mzumbe University African Public Administration and Management series, vol. 2 Fundamentals of human resource management Emerging experiences from Africa Josephat Stephen Itika Published by: African Studies Centre P.O. Box 9555 2300 RB Leiden [email protected] www.ascleiden.nl Cover design: Heike Slingerland Photos: Evans Mathias Kautipe Printed by Ipskamp Drukkers, Enschede ISSN 2211-8284 ISBN 978-90-5448-108-9 © University of Groningen / Mzumbe University, 2011  To all those who believe that African countries, organisations and people have a contribution to make in the meaningful adaptation and application of Eurocentric concepts, theories, assumptions, principles, techniques and practices and in anticipation that such contributions will liberate African managers from mismanagement and inefficiencies. Preface This book is not just one of the many introductions to Human Resource Management that are published, year after year, for use in HRM classes. Authors of those introduc- tions face many challenges, such as the need to produce something that is both theoreti- cally sound and practically valuable, or to find a way to integrate discussions on a vari- ety of topics into one comprehensible teaching tool. The author of this book took up those challenges by, on the one hand, closely following the conventions that HRM scholars all over the world adhere to with regards to the demarcation of subfields within the HRM discipline, and on the other hand, including a multitude of Tanzanian and oth- er African cases that put each of these subfields in a vivid context. The result is a book that serves to initiate African students in the world-wide HRM community, while simultaneously enabling them to create their own HRM policies in accordance with circumstances in their countries. As such, it is definitely a unique book. It brings the global and regional perspective together, to the benefit of both. The author and his colleagues of the School of Public Administration and Management of Mzumbe University deserve respect for this accomplishment. Their reward will be in the educa- tional outcomes that the book will certainly bring about in their own classes and in hopefully many other ones. Dr Ben Emans professor Sustainable HRM Hanze University Groningen vii Contents Preface vii Appendices x List of tables x List of figures xi Acknowledgements xiii Foreword xv 1. Introduction to human resource management 1 2. Strategic human resource management 27 3. Human resource policies 43 4. Employee resourcing 63 5. Recruitment and selection 75 6. Performance management 93 7. Reward systems management 115 8. Human resource development 127 9. Employee relations 143 10. Talent and competency based human resource management 163 11. International human resource management 179 12. Recruitment and performance appraisal in the public sector 189 13. Recruitment and retention of human resource for health 201 14. Human resource management in Tanzania Tobacco Processors Ltd 215 Index 233 ix Appendices 3.1 Housing Policy and Procedure for Tanzania Tobacco Processors Ltd 59 5.1 Job description from Tanzania Tobacco Processing Ltd. 90 6.1 Tanzania Public Service Open Performance Appraisal Form 107 6.2 Employee termination on poor performance 113 9.1 Collective bargaining 158 9.2 Strikes and lockouts in collective bargaining 162 14.1 Grievance handling form 230 List of tables 1.1 Human resource theories 5 1.2 Similarities personnel management (PM) and human resource management (HRM) 20 1.3 Differences personnel management (PM) and human resource management (HRM) 20 3.2 Equal opportunities in human resource activities 52 4.1 Human resource planning barometer 68 4.2 Human resource planning matrix 69 5.1 A sample of job description form 76 5.2 A sample of person specification form 77 5.3 The relationship between competencies and job quality 77 6.1 Employees perception of the job 103 7.1 Job factor analysis 119 7.2 Design of salary structure 120 7.3 Determinants of employees’ motivation 121 7.4 Money as a source of motivation 123 7.5 Reasons for seeking employment 124 7.6 Salaries and wages as motivators towards work performance 124 8.1 Types of training and development 132 8.2 Stages in career development 136 8.3 The differences between the old and new career development models 137 9.1 Reasons for joining trade unions 152 10.1 Differences and similarities between CBHRM and HRM 172 10.2 Professional competencies in human resource management 173 11.1 The nature of diversity in national culture 182 11.2 The relevance of expatriates, host and home country staff 184 12.1 Job seekers expectations 192 12.2 Employee dissatisfaction with jobs and organisations 193 13.1 General staffing levels in district dispensaries 207 13.2 Years of service of human resource for health at Korogwe District Council 210 x List of figures 1.1 Stages in the evolution and development of human resource management 7 2.1 Strategic human resource management model 33 3.1 Formulation and implementation of human resource policy 45 4.1 Human resource planning model 65 5.1 Components of effective assessment in assessment centres 84 8.1 Systematic training 131 9.1 A model of psychological contract 146 9.2 Six frameworks of organisation of justice 148 10.1 Competence framework 166 10.2 Competence based performance management 171 11.1 Cultural dimensions in IHRM 183 12.1 Performance appraisal and review system in Tanzania 194 12.2 Revised performance review and appraisal model 197 13.1 Principal-agent-resource-dependency framework 205 13.2 Analytical framework 206 xi Acknowledgements This book is a result of contributions from many people and I cannot mention all of them here because that will not be practical and the list is long. From the bottom of my heart, I am highly indebted to all of those whose support, encouragement and whose ideas have made this book a reality. However, much as I do appreciate and acknowledge all, some of them have to be mentioned. I highly appreciate my colleagues in academia from the School of Public Administration and Management of Mzumbe University who shared with me the initial ideas of the book which gave the current scope. Throughout my teaching in human resource management and supervision of students’ dissertations, I have been sharing notes with my students and I have, in the process, learned a lot. Thank you very much. Managers and administrators from various organisations I visited and colleagues from the Association of African Public Administration and Management (AAPAM) and African Training and Research Centre in Administration for Develop- ment (CAFRAD) have made invaluable contributions to this book particularly on the case studies from various countries and for which I thank them all. The book contains a special chapter on talents and competency based human re- source management which is out of the inspiration and lessons from Certified Talent and Competency Professional Programme which was initiated and supported by the government of Tanzania under joint facilitation of ARTDO International and Institute of Training and Development (ITD) in 2006. In this regard, I am highly indebted to Dr. Rumesh Kumar and Dr. Mario del Castilo for their contributions particularly on the dif- ferences between traditional and competency based human resource management. Needless to say that the lessons I learned from the experiences of colleagues in that pro- gramme are invaluable and have prompted me to have a chapter in this book so that we can continue to share these noble ideas for better people management in the country and elsewhere. To all of you, thank you very much. My colleagues in the NPT project Professor Ko de Ridder and Dr. Albertjan Tolle- naar have been instrumental and inspiring through reading the manuscript and providing very useful comments that significantly shaped the book. Also, the book would not have been published without technical, professional and academic contribution form Dr. Ben Emans from Hanze University in Groningen. I want to take this opportunity to express my heartfelt appreciation for many useful comments which shaped the book in terms of contents and scope. Special thanks should equally go to Mr. Christian Garrad from the University of Groningen for the meticulous job in editing the manuscript. The Royal Netherlands Government through the Netherlands Programme for the Institutional Strengthening of Post Secondary Education and Training Capacity (NPT) project under the management of the Netherlands Organisation for International Cooperation (Nuf- fic) provided funds for the research and publication of the book. Without this support, the book would have been a distant dream. I extend my sincere appreciation to Nuffic for accepting and supporting the idea of developing a book that captures African experi- ences. The NPT project staff members have always been boosting my morale whenever I was weakened by the boredom of continuous writing. These are Mr. Wiebe Zijlstra, Ms. xiii Anita Veltmaat and Gonny Lakerveld from the University of Groningen, Dr. Montanus Milanzi, Mr. Rashid Mfaume, Mrs. Saida Fundi and Anita Kinolo from Mzumbe Uni- versity. Thank you very much for the encouragement and logistical support. Others are my colleagues from Mzumbe University with whom we have been working together to write books to give Northern concepts, theories and principles some African flavour. These are Dr. Richard Gellejah and Dr. Martin Mpamila Madale; thank you very much for sharing the experience. Lastly, but not least are my dear wife Voyness, and our dear children Divine, Gladys and Neema and my young sister Lucy who had to bear with me and share part of sleep- less nights during the writing of the book. These individuals have constantly been en- couraging and supporting me to the last moment. Thank you very much for the under- standing and perseverance. xiv Foreword ‘Leaders must be guided by rules which lead to success.’ (Machiavelli: The Prince) For over half a century now, most African people south of the Sahara are still living under political, social and economic hardships, which cannot be compared with the rest of the world. For many, the expectations of independence have remained a dream. This state of affairs has many explanations but it is fundamentally based on the nature of African countries and organisations on one hand, and on the other hand there is over reliance on Eurocentric philosophies, theories, and assumptions on how administrators and managers should manage African countries, organisations, and people in such a way that will lead to prosperity. As a result, the same Eurocentric mindsets are used to de- velop solutions for African leaders and managers through knowledge codification and dissemination in the form of textbooks and the curricula in education systems. Evidence from economies in South East Asian countries suggests that the success behind these countries is largely explained by high investment in human capital and, to some extent, avoiding wholesale reliance on the importing of northern concepts, values and ways of managing people; that is, the development of human resources capable of demonstrating management in setting and pursuing national, sector wide, and corporate vision, strategies, and commitment to a common cause within the context of their own countries and organisations. Similarly, African managers and leaders effectively cannot manage by merely importing Eurocentric knowledge without critical reflection, sorting and adaptation to suit the context they work in and with cautious understanding of the implications of globalisation in their day-to-day management practices. They have to understand and carefully interpret northern concepts and embedded assumptions, inter- nalise and develop the best strategies and techniques for using them to address man- agement problems in their organisations and countries, which are, by and large, Afro- centric. Therefore, like Machiavelli, human resource managers, like leaders, must be guided by rules which lead to the success of their countries and organisations. The main chal- lenge facing human resource managers now is to know which rules are necessary and when applied would lead to effective human resource management results in different types of public and private sector organisations and contexts. This is a difficult question to answer. However, we can start by learning one small step at a time from the emerging experiences of our own practices of human resource management in Africa and else- where. This book on ‘Fundamentals of human resource management: Emerging Experiences from African Countries’ has just made a small step in the journey of establishing a link between Eurocentric concepts, philosophies, values, theories, principles and techniques in human resource management and understanding of what is happening in African or- ganisations. This will form part of the groundwork of unpacking what works and what xv does not work well in African organisational contexts and shed more light on emerging synergistic lessons for the future. The book has fourteen chapters each addressing important issues in human resource management in terms of the Eurocentric approach and reflecting on what is happening in African governments and organisations at the end of each chapter. Chapter 1 starts to lay the foundations of human resource management, on which the rest of the book is anchored. It covers theoretical issues and historical trends in the evo- lution and development of human resource management as a discipline and a profes- sion. Chapter 2 sets the basis for using a strategic approach to manage human resources and the link between corporate strategy and strategic human resource management. It establishes the changing role of human resource managers from that of managing rou- tine functions into a strategic business partner where human resource management func- tions are decentralised to lower departments and sections. Chapter 3 is concerned with human resource policies as the step following strategic choices in people management. Policies are useful in guiding managers to ensure that organisations have the right number and quality of staff at any particular point in time. Chapter 4 covers the fundamentals of employee resourcing and addresses key issues in human resource planning at micro, meso and macro level. It also considers challenges facing management on decision making in financing human resource plans. Chapter 5 investigates recruitment and selection. Our experience is that all managers and administrators are involved in one way or another in human resource recruitment and selection and require knowledge, skills and techniques for getting people into or- ganisations. Special emphasis is put on the use of appropriate selection techniques and tools, particularly assessment centres. The most successful organisations have the best strategies to utilise staff and measure their performance. This is covered in chapter 6, which is devoted to performance man- agement systems, processes, techniques and measurements. There is always a link between reward and performance. The employee’s perform- ance should be recognised through the provision of appropriate rewards. Chapter 7 de- scribes the development of appropriate reward systems for effectively utilising human resources. Chapter 8 is about human resource development partly as recognition that improved performance is achieved through continuous training and development but also that training and development are essential rewards. When employees join organisations they have their own needs, expectations and interests as individuals and as a part of a team. Likewise, employers do not engage staff without needs, expectations and interests to be met and which may not necessarily be compatible with those of the employees. Therefore, the relationship between these two parties has to be effectively managed in order to have a harmonious work place. Chapter 9 is devoted to the relationship employees have with their management. With globalisation and the emergence of many multinational corporations, managing human resource, which is diverse in nature within multinationals, is of increasing con- cern for managers. Therefore, the legal framework which governs the relationships be- tween employees, employers and trade union in Tanzania is given emphasis. One of the strongly emerging developments in human resource management disci- pline is a shift from traditional human resource management to competency based hu- xvi man resource management whereby the identification, utilisation, rewarding, measure- ment and developing of talents and competencies are becoming critical in determining organisational competitiveness and sustainability. Therefore, chapter 10 underscores the importance of talent and competency based human resource management in competitive organisations. The ongoing reforms in both public and private sector organisations and the efforts to promote foreign direct investment in Africa have started to bear fruits that pose many challenges on managing multicultural workforce. Chapter 11 looks at the international perspectives of human resource management as recognition of the emerging challenges and emphasis on the need to re-examine the best ways to manage people in a globalise world. Chapter 12 is more practical and based Tanzanian experiences. It focuses on the link between recruitment and open performance appraisal in Tanzanian public service by identifying the mismatch between recruitment and selection and open performance ap- praisal and recommends an alternative model. Chapter 13 links theory and practice in human resource management for health in general and more specifically in local authorities in Tanzania. The main focus is on re- cruitment and retention strategies and the challenges faced in health service provision. Chapter 14 is on the human resource management in a private foreign company for the purposes of drawing lessons from other private sector organisations that are now the engine of economic growth in Tanzania. The chapter covers policies and procedures governing day-to-day people management. It will be noted with emphasis that in each chapter there is a reflection on what is going on in some Tanzanian and other African countries and organisations. It is impor- tant that readers make use of these lessons to digest the usefulness of northern concepts, theories, assumptions and principles and how they may be better utilised within the con- text of their own countries. For those interested in academia, it will be a starting point to begin building models for human resource management particularly for Sub Saharan Africa. ‘For every effect there is a cause. The prime mover and the work of men is to change it.’ (Aristotle, 384-322 BC) Prof. Josephat Stephen Itika (PhD) School of Public Administration and Management, Mzumbe University, Tanzania xvii Professor Josephat Itika, Dean of the School of Public Administration and Management, Mzumbe University xviii  1 Introduction to human resource management Introduction For more than a century now, human resource management, as a discipline and practice in the management of people in an organisation, has evolved and developed into differ- ent areas. These disciplines and practices have gone through a process of trial and error, theory building and testing of various concepts by practicing managers and academics (Farnham & Pimlott 1979; Storey 1989; Armstrong 1995). The underlying forces be- hind the evolution and development of human resource management have been (and still are) mainly environmental, and the quest for knowledge of better ways of acquiring and utilising labour. The changing organisational environment in the marketplace pushed managers to improve efficiency in the production and service delivery processes by increasing their ability to use the best practices of people management at the time. That is, employee management techniques or methods that would improve production, reduce service delivery costs, and at the same time ensure sustained availability of com- petent staff in the organisation. This introductory chapter is devoted to providing learn- ers with a cursory account of the evolution and development of human resource man- agement and the way it works and influences people management in contemporary or- ganisations. Therefore, at the end of the chapter, learners should be able to: Describe the process of the evolution of human resource management. Appreciate the role of different theories in shaping human resource management practice. Recognise similarities and differences between personnel and human resource management. Examine the role of modern human resource manager in human resource management functions. 2 Guiding theories in human resource management Human resource management principles and techniques for people management in competitive organisations are drawn from theories found in different disciplines. Indeed, it is impractical to present all the disciplines and relevant theoretical aspects that have shaped the understanding of human resource management today. Therefore, it is be- lieved that it is only important to give the reader a cursory view of some relevant theo- ries underpinning human resource management and whoever may be interested in knowing more about the genesis and developments of a specific theory may do so by taking extra homework. Organisation life cycle theory Cameron & Whetton (1981) advanced organisation life cycle theory which characterises organisational development from formation, growth, maturity, decline and death. Ac- cording to the theory, the driving force in all these stages is the nature of workforce. At the maturity stage the organisation cannot continue to grow or survive if there is no or- ganisational structure that supports human resource creativity, innovation, teamwork and high performance, which will withstand pressure from competitors. Role behaviour theory Role behaviour theory aims to explain and predict the behaviour of individuals and teams in organisations, which, in turn, inform managers for the purposes of decision making, and what steps they take on people management as well as the expected conse- quences. Some of the key ideas focus on the need to improve the working environment including the resources in order to stimulate new behaviour in employees in order for them to cope with new demands (Prachaska et al. 1982), it includes the use of rewards to induce and promote positive work behaviour, and punishments to control negative behaviour (Rogers 1983). Resource dependency theory One of the challenges faced by managers during the economic recessions in the 1970s is how organisations can best acquire scarce resources and effectively utilise them in order to remain competitive in the market. The ability to utilise one’s own resources including (financial, technological and labour), and acquire more from the external environment was one of the areas of concern in many organisations. The more organisations were able to harness resources, the more competitive they became. Therefore, resources were seen as the essence of organisational power (Emerson 1962). However, overdependence on external resources appeared to be risky due to the uncertainties that cannot be con- trolled by the organisation (Pfeffer & Solansick 1978). Concerning useful labour, the emphasis shifted to seeing employees as scarce resources that should be acquired effec- tively, utilised, developed and retained. Institutional theory The word ‘institution’ means different things to different people depending on academic and professional orientation (Peters 2000). However, it is a discipline that combines politics, law, psychology, public administration, and economics amongst other things, in order to explain why certain decisions are made or actions taken and their impact on the organisation. Commons (1931: 648) defines ‘institutions’ as ‘collective action in con- trol, liberation and expansion of individual action’. Collective action covers areas such  3 as custom, law and procedures. The main objective of collective action is less or greater control of the acts of individuals, which result in either gains or losses in the process of executing joint transactions. Control is about prohibitions of certain acts in such a way that the control of one person or organisation leads to liberty of the others and hence better gains. According to Commons (1931) these institutions establish relationships of rights, duties, no rights, and no duties which influence behaviour of individuals. ‘The major role of institutions in society is to reduce uncertainty by establishing a stable (not necessarily efficient) structure to human interaction.’ Institutions could be formal, and have explicit rules, contracts, laws, and rights (institutional arrangements) or informal in the sense of social conventions that are not designed by anybody. Therefore organisa- tions should set an appropriate institutional framework that will bind and influence the behaviour of employees towards an organisational commitment to excellence. Also put by Brunsson (1999): ‘the process of standardization of procedures affect behaviour’. Employment contracts, performance agreements and other employment related instru- ments should therefore be seen as useful aspects of human resource management. Transaction cost theory Transaction cost theory is based on the economic view of the costs of conducting busi- ness transactions. The thesis is that companies will grow if the costs of exchanging re- sources in the company are cheaper in comparison to competitors (Commons 1934; Coase 1984; Williamson 1998). Such costs include bureaucratic employment structures, procedures and the enforcement of employment contracts. For that matter employment relationships that may lead to high costs of exchange, should be minimised. Comparative advantage theory The main architect of comparative advantage theory is the economist David Ricardo who talked of the specialisation and division of labour among nations and firms. Ri- cardo postulated that nations should produce goods in which they have a domestic com- parative advantage over others (Ricardo 1891). Since then, organisations and nations have focused on strengthening internal capacity in order to have more advantages rela- tive to competitors and hence to reduce production and distribution costs per unit. Im- proving internal capacities include having the best human resources who are best util- ised to produce cheaper and better quality goods and services (Porter 1980; Grant 1991). General systems theory No organisation can survive without interacting with its environment. Organisations get inputs from the external environment, they are processed and the outputs are released to the external environment, which provides feedback to the organisation. Customers who are part of the environment will give feedback by using different means including value judgment on quality, price, style and fashion. Therefore organisations are seen as sys- tems with components and parts that are related and interconnected in such a manner that failure of a component or part leads to the failure of another (Laszio 1972; Haken 1980; Robbins 1990). The system approach to understanding organisations considers the human resource department as a component of the organisation’s system that also has other departments such as accounting, engineering, marketing etc. In order for the organisation to grow and remain competitive, each department, section or unit should support each other. One of the organisation’s inputs from the environment is human resources. For example, if an organisation makes an error with its recruitment strategy, 4 it will have a negative effect on the whole organisation. Similarly, if at the input proc- essing stage, human resources are not utilised in the best possible way, the same will be reflected in the quality and price of goods and services through feedback mechanisms. This may include the failure to sell goods or services at the expected prices. Human capital theory Human capital theory was initially well developed by Becker (1964) and it has grown in importance worldwide because it focuses on education and training as a source of capi- tal. It is now widely acknowledged that one of the key explanations for the rapid devel- opment of Asian countries in the 1970s and 80s is high investment in human capital (Robert 1991; Psacharopolos & Woodhall 1997). Human capital theory changes the equation that training and development are ‘costs the organisation should try to mini- mise’ into training and development as ‘returnable investments’ which should be part of the organisational investment capital. Therefore, human resource training and develop- ment decisions and evaluations have to be done based on clearly developed capital in- vestment models. Strategic contingency theory There is a growing body of knowledge stipulating that since an organisation operates and thrives in a complex environment, managers must adopt specific strategies which will maximise gains and minimise risks from the environment (Peter & Waterman 1982; Scott 1992; Robbins 1992). In this premise, the theory contends that there is no one best strategy for managing people in organisations. Overall corporate strategy and the feed- back from the environment will dictate the optimal strategies, policies, objectives, ac- tivities and tasks in human resource management. Organisational change theory Gareth (2009: 291) defines organisational change as the process by which organisations move from their present state to some desired future state to increase their effectiveness. Organisations change in response to many developments taking place in the internal and external environment such as technology, policies, laws, customer tests, fashions and choices that influence peoples’ attitudes and behaviour. These developments influence different aspects of human resource management and in response, organisations have to change the way organisational structure, job design, recruitment, utilisation, develop- ment, reward and retention are managed (Hersay & Blanchard 1977; Robbins 1992; Johns 1996). The organisational change theory suggests the improvement of organisa- tional change and performance by using diagnostic tools appropriate for the develop- ment of effective change strategy in human resource management. Organisational learning theory Globalisation has changed knowledge monopoly. Knowledge generated in one part of the world spreads faster than a decade ago. Today, what matters for organisational com- petitiveness is the ability to learn from emerging knowledge and adapt the learning to suit the organisational environment faster than others. Agyris & Schoen (1978) and Senge (1992) have emphasised the importance of total organisational learning whereby individuals and teams muster knowledge related to their work and the environment and share with common vision, models and strategies for addressing the present and future of the organisation. Therefore, poor organisational learning leads to poor organisational  5 adaptation to the environment, less competitiveness, which leads inevitably to decline and ultimate collapse. Comparison Schuler (2000) has summarised these theories into a more manageable framework (see Table 1.1). This framework enables us to compare the human resource theories and their main objectives. Table 1.1 Human resource theories Theories Human resource lessons/Assumptions/Implications Resource dependency Scarcities of resources determine policies and procedures to be adopted by theory organisations. Employees are scarce resources, which should be carefully managed. Competitive advantage Organisations should capitalise on competitive advantage it has over other theory organisations An employee is a rare resource, immutable, non-substitutable, and valuable In order to gain from competitive advantage, there should be creation and support of organisational culture that ensures effective management of training and performance management functions. Institutional theory Organisational norms, values, attitudes and myths are the sources of organisational failure or success These need be rationalised in order to ensure effectiveness. Agency theory The employer and employee have a principal-agent relationship. As there may be disagreement between the two, legal implications have to be carefully considered and, if possible, litigation should be avoided. General systems Organisations are complex systems. theory Human resource management is a sub system Failure/success of each component will have overreaching impact to the organisation. Human capital theory It is an economic approach – people are valuable assets. Invest in people as one does in other assets e.g. machinery. Organisational life cycle Organisation grows in stages. Start up, growth, maturity, decline and revival. theory Manage human resources according to the stage of growth of the organisation. Role behaviour theory The means used by an organisation to send role information determines role response (behaviour). Human resource management should focus on improving the role information for employees. Organisational change Organisations pass through different forms, levels of quality, and states over time theory Human resource management should ensure congruence between stated goals, changes, and performance. Transaction cost It is an economic point of view of governance structures in business transactions. theory It considers costs of establishment, monitoring, evaluation, and enforcement of exchanges (contracts). Since managers have limited information for decision making (bounded rationality) before transactions, there must be measures to reduce risks. Managers should seek opportunities to be used by employees. Human resource management should minimise loopholes in employment relationships like reviewing contracts, monitor, and ensure compliance to set objectives, targets and standards. Strategic contingency Organisations have several strategic typologies to adopt. theory The choice of typology depends on organisational environment. Human resource management should depend on a particular typology chosen. Organisational The success of an organisation depends on ability to learn learning theory Employees prior knowledge facilitates learning and application of new related learning Human resource management should facilitate continuous learning Source: adapted from Schuler (2000). 6 Theories as stated earlier and summarised in Table 1.1 are useful in shaping debates and professional practice in the process of the evolution and development of human resource management as a discipline as well as a profession. The usefulness of the conclusions reached from these theories will unfold as we go through the process of the evolution of human resource management over the past one hundred years. The evolution and development of human resource management Human resource management as a practice happens wherever there is more than one person. It starts at the family level where family members take different roles and re- sponsibilities for the accomplishment of family objectives. The head of the household would harness all available resources including people to find the best in them in order to achieve whatever may be needed or desired. Indeed, the division of labour depends on the philosophies, values and expectations of family members and which are rooted in the wider society, be it a clan, a tribe or religion. Managing people in an organisational setting is well documented throughout the his- tory of mankind (Munsterberg 1913; Taylor 1960; Cuming 1985). Organisational struc- tures evolved, leadership emerged or was formed, roles and responsibilities were as- signed to people, accountability systems were laid down, and rewards and punishments were also provided. In this regard, division of labour, specialisation and accountability were systematically organised to achieve a specific purpose. However, the documentation of the evolution and development of human resource management practices can be traced back to the booming European economy of the 1900s (Roethlisberg 1939). This economy created the necessary environment for more serious thought on the role of effective people management in the emerging labour mar- ket of the time. The economies were preparing for the First World War and its aftermath where industrial production required a mass of skilled, well organised and disciplined labour force. The challenges revolved around mobilisation of resources including peo- ple, which led to the evolution and development of four stages in managing labour. The stages were mainly identified by looking at the changing titles of officers responsible for managing the workforce and different roles that were emerging over time. There- fore, although personnel management literature often states particular dates or decades of transformation from one phase to another (Chruden & Sherman 1984; Cuming 1985), as a matter of principle, such dates or decades are more for convenience and reference purposes than being actual historical events. The same recognition is used to provide a picture of the chronology of the evolution and development of human resource man- agement as we see it today. Figure 1.1 displays the stages in the evolution of human resource management. Welfare stage in industrial age Historically, the 1900s was a time of increasing technological and economic break- throughs arising from continued advancement in general and scientific knowledge through creativity and innovations. Indeed, the advancements had serious impact on economic growth and demand for goods and services in Europe and in Germany in par- ticular for the preparations of World War I (Roethlisberg & Dickson 1939). More goods were demanded, and the massive production of goods could be done more efficiently than ever before, under one industrial roof. This was a common phenomenon across  7 Figure 1.1 Stages in the evolution and development of human resource management Personnel/ Strategic Human human official Personnel resource Human resource titles Welfare admini- Personnel manager resource manager officer strator manager manager Employee Personnel Personnel Personnel / Human Strategic stages welfare administra- manage- Human resource resource human tion ment management manage- resource ment manage- ment decades 1900 1920-1930 1940-1960 1970-1980 1990 2000 Western Europe particularly in Britain, France, Spain and Italy. For the Germans who were secretly preparing for war, the production of war materials created a chain of in- dustrial networks with forward and backward linkages. Managing the increasing work- force in the emerging complex industrial production systems was an ever-more difficult challenge. The search for solutions, which included how to organise employees and ensure that their welfare was provided for, led to the need for better people management techniques that were not necessarily important only a few years before. Welfare services such as a canteen and other needs required some kind of officer whose sole purpose was to take care of workers. This is the genesis of employees’ welfare services in organisa- tions and the famous title of welfare officers we have in some organisations even today (Eilbert 1954; Chruden & Sherman 1984). Change of focus from welfare to personnel administration The 1920s and mid 30s are generally regarded as decades of personnel administration. The growing size of organisations and pressure to improve productivity called for the need to recruit, select, train, keep records, appraise, motivate, control, and improve pro- duction of job entry level of employees and those in the job as part of job orientation. These administrative tasks were best handled by welfare officers because of their ex- periences in welfare matters. However, since the roles of welfare officers changed in nature and scope and became more demanding in terms of knowledge, skills and behav- ioural attributes, the whole situation suggested that the title of welfare officer was not good enough to describe what was actually happening. To address these new dimen- sions of a welfare job, the title had to change from welfare officer to personnel adminis- trator (Cuming 1985). Evolution and development of personnel management This covers the period during and after World War II. In the 1940s and 50s, there was an ever growing role for personnel administration to cope with the rising challenges and demands of the job which included craft, supervisory training and labour disputes that were threatening employees and organisational efficiency. These new dimensions in employee management were exacerbated by developments in academia, professional 8 managers interested in academics and consultants where efforts were devoted to study behavioural factors in job performance. Such developments include human relations’ school, which was pioneered by Elton Mayo and Kurt Lewin, who emphasised on im- proving the work environment and work groups as a strategy to improve productivity (Rush 1959; Robbins 1990; Torrington et al. 2005). Treating employees as human be- ings rather than working tools was a new doctrine that was revealing other aspects of people management in other phases of personnel management. This period marked a shift of emphasis from managing an individual employee to managing groups/teams in the organisation (Davis 1980). Other contributions were from the work of Abraham Maslow on the human hierarchy of needs and the power of employee’s motivation on productivity (Maslow 1970). Later, Chris Argyris and Frederick Herzberg wrote about the concept of employee’s satisfaction and the significant impact this concept has had on the organisational practices in improving the quality of work in organisations (Deci & Ryan 1985). The organisation development school driven by Bennis & Schein pro- vided equally useful inputs to personnel practices particularly in areas of effective communication and the need to reduce conflict in the work place (Davis 1980; Walton & McKerzie 1991). Therefore, to suit the fashion of the time, there appeared to be a difference between ‘administration’ and ‘management’. Likewise, there is a difference between ‘administrator’ and ‘manager‘, where the former appears to be dealing more with routine activities, the latter deals with more strategic issues. There is however an on-going debate in academia on the semantics and the actual substance of personnel jobs. During the 1950s and 60s personnel management as a professional discipline ma- tured as characterised by most personnel management theories, practices, and processes we know today (Chruden & Sherma 1984; Cuming 1985). In addition to the services provided in the earlier phases, other areas covered in the functions of personnel man- agement, particularly in the 1960s, were organisational development, management de- velopment, systematic training and manpower planning. Better processes and tech- niques of employee selection, training, wages and salary administration and perform- ance appraisal were introduced. The other area was industrial relations in which person- nel managers became experts in labour law and represented their organisations in indus- trial relations disputes (Chruden & Sherman 1984). Therefore, personnel management as a type of management in organisations has evolved into a distinctive discipline. Perhaps one of the most widely accepted descrip- tions of the meaning of personnel management is the one given by Michael Armstrong in 1995. This definition is not very different from the ones found in revised editions and other textbooks on human resource management throughout the 2000s. Armstrong (1995) defines personnel management as ‘the process and practice of getting people in organization, assessing and rewarding for performance, and developing their full poten- tial for the achievement of organisational objectives’. By looking at personnel management in this perspective, as may also be noted from other work by the same author, and many other experts including Dessler (2005) and Bhatia (2007) there are many functions that ought to be performed in a designated func- tional department (personnel department). However, as shall be observed later, these functions are not by themselves necessarily different from those under a human resource management conceptual framework (Storey 1989; Armstrong 1995; Guest 2001).  9 The personnel functions are summarised and explained below as follows. Establishment of the organisational structure This involves establishing the organisation structure in a way that will enable the reali- sation of the intended mission, vision, goals, objectives, strategies and tasks. It is like an African saying that ‘you scratch your back where your hand can reach’. No single or- ganisational structure can suit all organisations because the suitability of an organisa- tional structure will depend on where the organisation is, and what its future prospects are. If the mission of the organisation involves rapid growth and expansion, a tall bu- reaucratic structure may not be desirable because such a structure slows the decision making process, which in turn, stifles flexibility, creativity and innovation. A personnel officer who is fundamentally responsible for effective manning levels in the organisa- tion has the mandate to become part of the organisational structure design team. Human resourcing Resourcing is a concept that has emerged with the use of the term ‘human resource planning’ as we shall see later. It involves a process of enabling the organisation to have the right people, doing the right jobs at the right time. This is in line with the challenges facing managers in staffing organisations. It is about planning for the number and qual- ity of employees required under different job categories and to make sure that staffing process such as recruitment, selection, placement, promotions, transfers and downsizing are effective. Managing performance appraisal The personnel department has to initiate the system, process, techniques and tools of individual, teams and organisational performance measurement. It has to ensure that performance targets for individuals, teams, sections and departments are set and agreed upon and measures to address performance gaps are in place and are working. This is not an easy task because it requires a value judgement about employees. Indeed, there are no other areas of personnel management that make personnel officers more uncom- fortable and unpopular than the appraisal function. This is because whatever process or tool is used to appraise staff and reward them accordingly, there is always tacit or ex- plicit dissatisfaction from staff based on the feelings that such decisions were biased. Progress has been made towards improving staff appraisal systems, which will be cov- ered later under performance management. Personnel training and development Since the performance of the organisation depends on the competence of the workforce, training and development are important, not only for the present job but also for the future job and organisation. The head of the personnel department has to design tools for assessing the need for training that will be used to identify training and development gaps and develop effective strategies and programmes for training and developing staff. In most large organisations and more so in government ministries, there are departments and officers responsible for ensuring that personnel training and development functions are carried out effectively. Compensation/Rewards management The words ‘compensation’ and ‘reward’ are often used interchangeably in contemporary personnel management. Although in principle, the two concepts may mean the same thing, they have different philosophical roots. Whereas the former is based on the inter- pretation that work is not necessarily a good thing and hence those who work lose 10 something which should be compensated, the later considers work positive and some- thing which has to be rewarded depending on the quantity and quality of accomplish- ment. Therefore, employees need different types of compensations or rewards for the effort they expend on the job and enable the organisation function. It is the duty of the human resource department through the responsible officers to evaluate different types and levels of jobs in order to develop appropriate compensations or rewards in terms of pay and other incentive packages. Personnel relations Relationships between an employer and employee and among employees in the work- place need to be nurtured to avoid conflicts and disputes which will ultimately lead to unproductive behaviour. The personnel department is well placed for this job as it has staff trained in people management particularly in industrial legislation, labour laws and conflict management. Some industrial organisations employ lawyers as industrial rela- tions officers, but qualified personnel officers should be able to perform this role. How- ever, other experts such as lawyers and professional counsellors may be consulted where necessary. Other routine personnel administration functions There are a myriad of other personnel functions, which are basically routine work and constitute day-to-day administrative activities performed by personnel officers depend- ing on the size and scope of the organisation. These functions include but not limited to, health, transport, security and safety, pensions, deaths, and personnel information sys- tem. Change to human resource management From the late 1970s and early 80s we witnessed many developments and challenges which disturbed the stability of economic, political, technological and academic envi- ronment experienced in the 1960s. These challenges have had enormous impacts on people management in organisations perhaps more than at any time in human history. Shift in global macro policy framework The late 1970s and early 80s was an era of neo liberalism in which market forces were a driver of institutional frameworks of nation states and organisations. This was a period when we witnessed strong arguments against direct state involvement in the economy. It is not clear what was the ‘chicken’ or ‘egg’ between politicians and academics or who these people, often referred to as ‘experts’ of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund are, and what their role in the architecture and birth of neo liberalism and marginalisation of the role of government in economic development is. However, whatever the case may be, both politicians and consultants were important in the doc- trine of neo liberalism. One of the foremost advocates of neo liberalism was the former conservative British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and her counterpart conservative president of the United States of America Ronald Reagan whose philosophies were known by their names, that is, Thatcherism and Reaganism respectively. They brutally blamed earlier liberal governments for causing the economic crisis of the 70s through excessive government control of economies and overprotection of employees. The pri- vatisation of state owned organisations, relaxation of legislation in favour of the private sector and the urge for profit maximisation became the new agenda and both the desired and required framework for managing organisations and the workforce. Therefore, costs consciousness and the pressure to justify the role of employees in developing and sus-  11 taining organisations in the market became a challenge. Failure to respond to these chal- lenges through proper personnel management strategies was seen as a slippery slope towards the collapse of companies that had long historical roots of successful business. Business competition The 1980s and early 90s witnessed an uncertain, chaotic and often turbulent business environment. Increased competition from Japan, and other international companies with cheaper but high quality goods was a challenge to American and European organisa- tions. In reaction to the new competition and as a strategy for coping with the crisis, a substantial number of organisations experienced takeovers, mergers, and business clo- sures. These were also accompanied by heavy losses of work, working on part time, the need for individuals to become multi skilled, and the contracting out of some work. Partly as a way of addressing these challenges the role of the personnel specialist had to change from reactive to proactive and from routine to strategic approach to the man- agement of personnel functions so as to be able to match the unpredictable environment. Change in customer needs and expectations A change in customer taste, fashion and quality of goods to reflect their purchase price put more pressure on the organisations to get the best out of their production systems, processes, and employees. This could only be achieved by getting the best people from the labour market, develop, reward, and ensure that they are committed to high quality service to the organisation. In order to achieve these objectives, an enabling environ- ment for employee creativity and innovation became a necessity. This new demand had an impact on recruitment and selection criteria, staff development and reward systems as well as the roles of personnel specialists vis-à-vis line managers in personnel man- agement functions. The role of personnel had to change from that of a doer of personnel functions to that of partner in providing support services to other departments to per- form personnel functions. Technological change Competition was also intensified by the organisations that could adopt and adapt flexi- ble specialisation technologies to meet customer needs and expectations. The implica- tions were that organisations had fewer, but better trained people, flexible to cope with rapid technological changes. Continuous learning and adaptation based on teams be- came a natural area of focus on people management. Information technology destroyed knowledge monopoly. The power of knowledge became how best to use it, rather than who owns it. Change of philosophy of employee relations The power of employees was through legislated trade unions where thousands of em- ployees under the industrial production system held power. Therefore, the power of in- dividual employees in the employment relationship was vested in a collective solidarity. Mass redundancies, less protective role of the state as well as the declining role of trade unions made life more individualistic than collective. The change of employee relations from collectivism to individualism was an automatic consequence of the above changes. Employment relations became more based on arrangements and agreements between the employee and employer as opposed to the use of trade unions and labour legislation. Developments in the academia Building on the knowledge accumulated in previous decades and research that was be- ing conducted particularly in the 1980s and early 1990s, it appeared that organisational 12 strategy, and strategic approach to managing employees was the best option for re- sponding to challenges facing organisations (Hendry 1995). The Human Resource Man- agement School, advanced by academics from America and Europe, which spearheaded the concept of ‘strategic approach’ to managing people, became the centre of debates and development of human resource management as a philosophy distinct from person- nel management. The Excellence School propounded by Peters & Waterman and their followers on the role of strong organisational cultures and commitment to excellence also has had a remarkable influence on the development of human resource manage- ment (Storey 1989). Some areas of corporate management including the size, structure, strategy, culture, product, and organisational life cycle were now included in human re- source management (Schuler 2000). The major issue was how personnel management functions could make an impact on the functional level, as part of supporting other departments, as well as being part of business strategy. Personnel managers had to become partners in the business. As part of improving employees’ utilisation, a more rigorous method of assessing the perform- ance of employees in relation to rewards was also developed. The introduction of per- formance management systems and reward systems based on performance was an indi- cation of changes in personnel management practices. Within these changes, personnel management was redefined and the concept of ‘hu- man resource ‘vis-à-vis ‘personnel’ was adopted, although the debate concerning the differences continues (Storey 1989). However, as may appear in the literature, the dif- ference between ‘human resource’ and ‘personnel’ may be clear or unclear (Armstrong 1995). This difference depends on the taste, or on the taste and fashion rather than on what managers do, this is notwithstanding the fact that most academics and managers in organisations use the term human resource management as opposed to personnel man- agement when referring to people management even without making conscious effort to distinguish between the two. Perhaps the most popular definitions of human resource management are those sug- gested by Storey and Armstrong because such definitions are based on thorough reviews of earlier works from both American and European human resource management de- bates. Storey looks at human resource management as: … a distinctive approach to employment management which seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic deployment of a highly committed and capable workforce using an integrated array of cultural, structural and personnel techniques (Storey 1995: 42). It is worth noting here that the focus of human resource management is on employee management techniques that are directed towards gaining competitive advantage de- pending on the adopted business or organisational strategy. Armstrong also appreciates the role of strategies but goes further by emphasising the need for robust personnel sys- tems, which will take care of employees (individuals and teams), as valuable assets where investment is crucial. Thus, he defines human resource management: … as a strategic and coherent approach to the management of organisations’ most valued as- sets – the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achieve- ment of business objectives (Armstrong 1995: 42). By looking at the various debates in academia and good practices in personnel and hu- man resource management, human resource management may be further defined as a strategic approach and management practice of managing employees so that there is  13 sustainable achievement of an organisational mission, goals, and objectives. These defi- nitions are conclusively derived from the American and European schools of thought. The evolution and development of human resource management has relied on two traditions. These are the American, alias Harvard and European under the leadership of British academics, particularly from the University of Lancaster. The American school alias ‘Harvard School’ The works by Boxall (1992), Beer & Spector (1985) and Beer et al. (1994) are consid- ered to be some of the main foundations of different concepts and disciplines which shape the scope of human resource management in America, and which were later adopted, adapted, or dropped by other scholars worldwide. Indeed, they represent what is often termed as American school of thought and contribution in the understanding of human resource management in contemporary organisations. The main building blocks are crystallised into four categories. The first involves a focus on stakeholders ‘interests, according to stakeholders’ theory, organisations that strive to maximise key stake- holders’ interests flourish more than those that pursue purely performance-oriented ob- jectives. This argument rests on the fact that organisations exist to serve different stake- holders with different interests but which may not necessarily be explicit. In this case, human resource functions have to maximise the interests of key stakeholders who, in turn, pay back by steering the organisation towards success. The second category is the balancing of stakeholders interests. This category is linked to the above argument but the focus here is on the need to take specific initiatives to ensure that, although there are stakeholders who matter more than others, if some stakeholders feel that there are some who benefit more than others, they may create ten- sions, dissatisfactions and ultimately erode commitment. Therefore, human resource managers should ensure employees’ interests are balanced with those of other stake- holders. The third category is positive influence on employees. Employees are central in in- fluencing survival and the growth of an organisation and hence human resource func- tions should exert positive influence on employees. Finally, the fourth is strategic approach to managing employees. Organisations will remain competitive if they focus on the organisational strategic issues and their envi- ronment. Strategic approach includes formulation of organisational mission, goals, ob- jectives, strategies, and targets. This approach has strongly influenced the now famous strategic human resource management approach, which we shall look into in more detail in chapter 2. The UK school alias European school Storey (1989) has described the role of David Guest and Colleagues in shaping human resource management discourses in Europe. These authors consider the following key critical areas of focus in human resource management: 1. The need to marry business and human resource strategies, that is, human resource strategies should be developed and save business strategies. 2. Strong organisational culture for employee commitment. The assumption here is that a committed employee will put in the maximum effort required for the desired organ- isational performance. 3. Obsession for Quality. In a world of increasing competition, new customer tastes, and choice, no organisation can survive without addressing issues of quality. Quality 14 will always matter in human resource management and the starting point of this is during recruitment, where an organisation should get the right staff right away. 4. Creativity and innovation. This is a critical factor, which distinguishes one organisa- tion from another in terms of how they respond to the environment. Employees have to be able to come up with new ideas and put them into practice in order to exploit business opportunities. Current human resource management debates seem to consider these two ways of look- ing at the basics of human resource management as more complementary rather than pointing to different directions. As a result, human resource philosophies and objectives are anchored on these schools of thought (Storey 1989; Guest 2001). Human resource management philosophies and objectives Philosophies of human resource management The Harvard and British human resource management schools and the two definitions cited from John Storey and Michael Armstrong and others (Terrington & Hall 1991; Farnham & Pimlott 1992) suggest that human resource management is not without phi- losophy. There are six elements on which human resource management philosophy and practices are based; First is ownership. Human resource management is and has to be owned and driven by the top management in the interests of the key stakeholders. The stakeholders include shareholders, the managing board, the workers, clients and customers. This is unlike the old tradition in which personnel management functions were mostly vested in desig- nated officers under a personnel department. Under human resource management, the philosophy is that the top management owns and drives the agenda for effective people management in an organisation. Second, business or organisational strategies form the basis for human resource strategies, and there should be a strategic fit. This opposes putting emphasis on routine activities, reactive decision making and limited vision which seemed to characterise traditional personnel management. The implication is that an organisation cannot have a strategic approach to managing the workforce without organisational and business strat- egy. Here, an aspect of flexible human resource planning comes in, and the ability to use the best forecasting techniques is a precondition for human resource acquisition, utilisation, development and retention. Third is considering employees as assets rather than liabilities. Under traditional per- sonnel management philosophy, training and development of employees was quite often seen as a cost that should be avoided whenever possible. Now this doctrine has been turned on its head. Investment in people, like any other capital investment, is necessary for better returns in the future. Fourth is getting additional value from employees. Employees are capable of produc- ing added value. It is the role of the management to obtain such added value through human resource development and performance management systems. The concept of added value is borrowed from production economics. It stipulates that an employee can be utilised to produce marginal output if properly trained, does the right job and is re- warded accordingly. Work measurement and matching jobs with the right people as well as measuring performance against the set targets and standards stand out clearer under human resource management school of thought.  15 Fifth is employee commitment. Organisational success comes from the employees’ total commitment to the organisational mission, goals, objectives, and values. Employ- ees’ understanding of the future of the organisation and their own future in the organisa- tion triggers commitment and hence sustained productivity. It is the task of the man- agement to induce and encourage that commitment. Sixth is also based on employees’ commitment. Building a strong organisational cul- ture gives managers an advantage in stimulating employees’ commitment. Effective communication, training, coaching, mentoring and performance management processes are effective tools for building a strong corporate culture. These philosophies have been accused of being insensitive to the human face of working relationships because they are, in many ways, about tightening the nuts and bolts in every aspect of employment. As a strategy to reduce what seemed to be extreme hard-nosed human resource management philosophies and practices (that is employers were becoming too selfish, individualistic and greedy – trying to maximise whatever possible benefits at the expense of employees), the focus in the 1990s changed some- what. The direction changed more towards team working, employee empowerment; organisational learning and competence based human resource management. Human resource management debates of the 1990s and 2000s became focused on trying to un- derstand these new concepts and how useful they are in improving human resource management functions in modern organisations. Other areas are the internationalisation of human resource management and the impact of globalisation in human resource management, particularly in the developing world. Objectives of human resource management The objectives of human resource management are derived from the philosophies which tie the emergence and development of human resource management together, both as a discipline and profession (Beer & Spector 1985; Cuming 1985; Armstrong; 1995; Dess- ler 2005). First, the whole aim was on trying to achieve an organisational mission, vision, goals and objectives using people as valuable resources. Unlike with the traditional personnel management theory whereby employees were seen as instruments needed to accomplish work in organisations, human resource management managers recognise and appreciate the need for putting people at the top of the agenda in achieving organisational objec- tives. As the power of the organisation depends on the nature of the workforce, putting employees first in all human resource management functions in the organisation and making them feel that they are at the top is seen as a step further in putting the organisa- tion first among competitors. The second objective concerns the utilisation of staff capacity. Successful organisa- tions are those that can fully utilise the potential of their employees. This manifests it- self in different approaches used in job design, recruitment, and placement. This in- cludes redesigning jobs so that related jobs can be done by one person, recruitment of multi-skilled employees, part time work arrangements, sub-contracting etc. The third objective involves ensuring that employees are committed to their jobs, teams, departments and the entire organisation. Striving for total employee commitment is intended to minimise unnecessary conflicts between the employees and the manage- ment that could result in low morale among the employees, high employee turnover and ultimately low productivity. Commitment is fostered by using various strategies includ- 16 ing employees being nurtured through coaching, mentoring and the provision of lucra- tive reward. The fourth objective is to ensure that organisational systems, processes and activities are integrated and synergised through a strong organisational culture. Organisational culture is made up of values, attitudes, norms, myths and practices that is ‘how things are done around’. Different categories of jobs, professions and departments are seen as a ‘whole’ rather than disjointed. Organisational symbols, songs, artefacts etc. are used to foster a culture of uniqueness, which makes employees feel proud of their jobs and the organisation. The fifth is optimal utilisation of available resources. In the language of economics, resources are always scarce. Organisations cannot succeed if resources (employees, fi- nance, machinery and equipment, energy) are over utilised, underutilised or are utilised at the wrong time or in the wrong place. Each of these scenarios would suggest that there is a waste of resources because some will be easily depleted, unnecessarily leaving them idle or are being used unwisely. In this case, matching resources with performance is a mechanism for monitoring organisational efficiency. Quite often time/activity/out- come and budget schedules are used to match resources with performance. Any observ- ed underutilisation or over utilisation of resources has implications in terms of how the human resources were used and measures are taken accordingly. The sixth reason for embracing human resource management practices is derived from organisational cybernetics and systems theory whereby the underlying principle is that ‘the sum is less than the whole’. From a human resource management perspective, each job, organisational unit, section, department and all categories of staff are seen in their totality. Working together instead of as an individual is a method for improving synergy at all levels. Departmental outdoor training programmes are some of the initia- tives used to improve synergy at functional level. The last but one objective covers the utilities of creativity, innovation, teamwork and high quality management as key drivers in organisational excellence. Matching with changing customer needs and expectations requires the presence of an environment for creativity, innovation, team working and an obsession with quality. These ideas are largely borrowed from Tom Peters and Robert Waterman on an ideal situation for effec- tive organisations in search of excellence, Joseph Schumpeter on the power of creativity and innovation, Joseph Juran, Edwards Deming and Ishikawa Kaoru on the emphasis of ‘quality in the first time and zero defects’ as part of organisational culture in high qual- ity management. These are cited as key explanations for the excelling of Japanese and other East Asian companies. Decentralisation of decision making to the lowest levels in the organisation structure, adaptation of flatter organisational structures, open office layouts, team building exercises, encouragement, support and reward for innovative ideas, and the use of quality circles in job performance are some of the strategies used to keep the organisation at the cutting edge. The last objective is to enable managers to be flexible and adapt to changes required in pursuing excellence in human resource management functions. Fast-tracking a change in an organisational environment requires the ability to take prompt decisions and take the right measures before it is too late. Flexibility and adaptation seeks to re- duce bureaucracy and inflexible working rules and regulations. What matters most is not ‘how the job is done but what is achieved’.  17 Sharing human resource management functions The traditional personnel management practice housed personnel functions in the de- partment responsible for personnel due to the dominance of functional specialisation by the departments. Under functional specialisation, managers who were not directly in- volved in the production line were considered staff managers and their functions were categorised as ‘staff functions’. Today, the distinction between line and staff managers seems to be overtaken by events in modern organisations because the concept was based on the assumption that functional specialisation was the best way to manage tasks; this is no longer the emphasis in some organisations today. However, the concept is still in use in some organisations, perhaps because old habits die hard and there is an inability among organisations to develop and manage a sufficiently multi-skilled workforce. Therefore, the use of the concept of line manager here is consistent with current think- ing in our organisations. Human resource philosophies and objectives have also implied that human resource management functions can no longer be centralised in any one de- partment. They have to be decentralised to various functional departments under line managers without avoiding duties and responsibilities at the human resource department level. In this case, some of the roles of line managers include the following. Employee resourcing Line managers are responsible for developing operational and annual action plans and budgets for their departments. Such plans have human resource management implica- tions in terms of their number and quality of which the line manager should be aware and actively participate in ensuring that the departmental objectives are achieved through people. It is the responsibility of the line manager to make sure that job analysis is effectively done, job descriptions and specifications are clear enough to be able to attract, recruit and select the most appropriate people to fill the available vacancies. Employee utilisation Effective employee utilisation is critical, not only for the good of the organisation but also for the good of individual employees and their teams. Underutilised staff is a lost resource to the organisation in terms of opportunity cost because even if the employee has enough work to earn a salary, the added marginal labour value will not be realised. The employee will also not have the advantage of utilising his/her full potential and get extra rewards. However, over utilisation of staff will lead to stress, fatigue, and other health problems or even the risk of loss of life. It is the duty of the line manager to put in place job strategies, objectives and targets, which are challenging enough, but not overstretching the staff ability. Performance and reward management This involves setting performance criteria, assessing performance and rewarding ac- cordingly. Without performance assessment, it will be difficult to know whether the department is achieving its objectives or not and to what extent. It is the responsibility of a line manager to sit with employees and sign a performance agreement, which will be used as the basis of individual performance appraisal. The contract itself can be per- manent, temporary, part time, but in a performance management system, the rewards are based on performance. This can be in the form of salary increment, renewal of contract, bonus, promotion, training etc. 18 Training and development Common wisdom tells us that the owner of the household knows better than the neigh- bour. Line managers are involved in day-to-day operations of the department. They are expected to know both general and specific knowledge, skills and attitudes required to effectively perform specific tasks by individuals, teams, and the whole department. They are also expected to know the kind of competencies that will be required in the future and help staff develop such competencies through career development pro- grammes. Handling of other human resource management functions Other human resource management functions may be routine or occasional and would be part of the jobs of the head of department. These would include coordination, build- ing a departmental team spirit and culture of performance, staff promotions, transfer, leave, managing disputes, taking disciplinary measures and layoffs. The emphasis that line managers should be responsible and accountable for human resource management in their respective departments does not deny the human resource department its central role in ensuring that strategic objectives of the organisation are achieved through effective people management. Also acknowledged by Terrington & Hall (2005), in working hand in hand with line managers, human resource managers play other important roles, which are not in conflict with what line managers do; such roles include: Formulation of human resource strategies Human resource managers play a pivotal role in developing human resource strategy and policies that fit the organisational and business strategy. This area is explored at length in chapter 2. The strategy will form the framework for different human resource policies (which is also being covered in chapter 3) for use by other managers. The roles of human resource managers are as explained below. Provision of guidance to other managers The human resource manager as an expert is expected to provide guidance to other managers and staff on the interpretation of personnel strategies and policies in various areas which include human resource implications of organisational and business strate- gies, human resourcing, staff training and development, disputes and grievance han- dling, employment legislations, health and safety, layoffs etc. Facilitation of change management Organisations pass through various life cycles, which require change and adaptation. Human resource managers should be well placed to facilitate the required changes in terms of design, interpretation of the implications of change and how best they could be managed. They should also be involved in the process of introducing change, including creating staff awareness and putting conditions for facilitating a change process in place. Employee empowerment The concept of power is not value free. It depends on the individual perception of the source of that power and how it is interpreted and used to influence human resource management functions. The employer has many sources of power including the ability to reward and punish. Similarly, employees can reward or punish employers by deciding how and when to use their knowledge, skills and attitudes to build or destroy the organi-  19 sation. It is the role of the human resource manager to ensure that there is no abuse of power and employees are empowered to make the right decisions on the shop floor in order to create an enabling environment for creativity and innovation. Support services to other departments The human resource department is a place where professionalism in people manage- ment is found, thus it should be well prepared and ready to provide support services to other departments as may be required. Some areas include, the design of different in- struments for transacting human resources, designing and putting in place the appropri- ate organisational structure and jobs for each functional area, recruitment and selection, performance management system, training needs assessment, training and development, and employees services including pension, leave, transport, retirement, retrenchment and burial. Human resource management critiques Human resource management has become so well established that if you talk about per- sonnel management it seems old fashioned. Yet, there are limitations, which have also triggered questions as to whether the whole debate is not more of an academic pastime rather than utility in practice (Storey 1989; Legge 1992; Schuler 2000). Some of the criticisms are presented below. Ensuring strategic fit Knowledge and skills of linking human resource strategy with business strategy are tak- en for granted. This task is housed in the human resource department whose staff is not necessarily trained in strategic business management. This casts doubts on the ability to establish that link. Human resource managers may not be perceived as business partners The doctrine that human resource managers should be seen by fellow managers as part- ners in business may be wishful thinking rather than what actually happens in practice. According to Schuler (2000), in reality, human resource managers are treated by other managers as a ‘second class citizen’, whose role is more of a supplier of personnel. Conflict of roles The assumption that a human resource manager takes the role of a partner in business implies that he/she should be on the side of the management and hence employees should represent themselves. This scenario increases employees’ feeling of isolation and neglect, which can give rise to conflicts and disputes. Role ambiguity The assumption that the human resource manager should be a generalist and at the same time be able to handle specific human resource functions, leaves much to be desired with regards to the type of training suitable and efficient in human resource functions. Subjectivity The use of other strategies like teamwork, 360 degrees appraisal, and performance based pay increase the use of subjective value judgement about individuals which may 20 de-motivate some employees and trigger counter disruptive behaviours including rent seeking or ‘just please the boss’ attitude. Eight years earlier, Legge (1992) had gone further in criticising the relevance of human resource management theories to the level of almost throwing the whole philosophy out of the window. To him, human resource management poses ambiguities and contradic- tions such that it does not offer much which is new to academia and practicing manag- ers. It is regarded as similar to personnel management, or a different way of referring to an advanced form of personnel management, a change of emphasis on key employee management issues and others. Table 1.2 presents a few of the areas of scepticism, hence making personnel management (PM) seem similar to human resource manage- ment (HRM). Table 1.2 Similarities personnel management (PM) and human resource management (HRM) Item PM HRM Integration of PM/HRM policies with organisational goals 9 9 Line management involvement in employee management 9 9 Employee motivation and commitment 9 9 Adding value 9 9 Source: Legge (1992). Legge’s criticisms may contribute to the understanding of where personnel and human resource management meet and therefore help us to understand why some writers in human resource management use the concepts of personnel and human resources man- agement interchangeably. In trying to differentiate personnel management and human resource management, and indeed, based on a critical review of key chapters in Storey’s book and other contributors to the development of human resource management in the 1980s, Armstrong (1995) has summarised the comparison between PM and HRM as shown in Table 1.3. Table 1.3 Differences personnel management (PM) and human resource management (HRM) Item Personnel management Human resource management Goals and values Incremental interventions in Strategic focus. competitiveness, attracting, retaining, motivating profitability, survival, competitive workers advantage and workforce flexibility Professionalism Personnel managers are ac- Line managers are accountable for their countable for employees’ staff (they are multi-skilled) matters (for which they are trained) Relations Limited trust, conflict and Harmony, mutuality of interests, active differentiation, control oriented employee involvement Employee manage- Narrow in focus, individualised Broad and team focused ment Information and Control information and Transparency, objectivity, honesty, trust and communication communication, bureaucratic, commitment secretive Source: Armstrong (1995).  21 Shift to strategic human resource management From the 2000s we witnessed a continuous exploration of the founding concepts of hu- man resource management, particularly the focus on ‘strategic fit’ and ‘strategic integra- tion’ in the search for organisational excellence. At least in theory rather than perhaps in practice, strategic human resource management focuses more on the relationship of hu- man resource management with the strategic management of the organisation as op- posed to what happens in a human resource department. It embraces management aspects beyond the normal human resource management functions and roles to take on board all macro concerns and strategies for organisational excellence such as quality management, organisational commitment, managing culture, organisational change and development (Agarwala 2009). In essence, strategic human resource management is a more proactive aspect of human resource management. More discussions will be cov- ered in chapter 2, which is devoted to dealing with strategic human resource manage- ment. Experiences from the third world countries It is common knowledge that with globalisation and the knowledge based economy, it is difficult to say with certainty the extent to which the concepts, theories, principles and practices learned in scholarly human resource management are applicable in the third world environment for the following reasons: First, the concept of ‘third world’ or developing country is becoming more and more irrelevant because countries are not homogenous and are therefore difficult to compare. For example, Sri Lanka and Botswana are classified as third world countries but Bot- swana may have more characteristics featuring in a European or American environment and hence create a better environment for the adoption of more advanced aspects of human resource management than Sri Lanka or than even in a medium sized company in Canada. Second, organisations in the third world countries are not homogenous either. A pub- lic enterprise, government department or agency will by definition have common fea- tures of a bureaucratic system where a purely private company will be able to learn fast- er and adapt to the emerging challenges in human resource management and hence adopting more proactive measures as would any other organisation in a more developed country. In extreme cases, there are organisations operating in developing countries that are indeed branches of multinational corporations and have adapted very advanced forms of human resource management comparable to other branches worldwide. There- fore, the fundamentals of human resource management remain intact. Such examples in Tanzania are Heidelberg Cement Company Ltd, Tanzania Breweries Ltd, Tanzania Leaf Tobacco Limited and PriceWaterhouseCoopers. Third, some concepts in human resource management may be more theoretical than practical and may only be useful for academic purposes. Therefore, they may not even be applicable in some big organisations in Japan, China or Australia. Such cases will be similar to the subject of debate on the differences between personnel and human re- source management or on whether employees are a capital or a resource. Therefore, the main point of discussion will be the way context specific factors influence human re- source management in third world countries. 22 In this regard, there is abundant literature which has confirmed the common knowledge that there is no theory, policy, or management style which may sufficiently guarantee success in people (Adesky 1998; Shivani 2002; Akosa-Saprong 2008). In fact, the idea of being right or wrong in theory or management practice is contentious because there is no universal truth on the best way to achieve results through people. Despite the limita- tions, it is also well established that the cultural environment which promotes thrifti- ness, industriousness, discipline, education, harmony, respect for elders, and collective solidarity creates a good environment for the management of human resource functions. However, while that has proven to be correct in some countries in Asia, there are also studies which show that Africa is rich in these values and yet they have not worked well in the continent’s favour. Beugre & Offodile (2001) and Khan & Ackers (2004) have examined the Eurocentric assumptions about management and the cultural working en- vironment in organisations in Africa and concluded as follows. The first Eurocentric assumption is that government and private sector institutions in Africa, like those in Europe or America, can be effectively managed with minimum influence from the external relationships such as family, friends, and political affiliation. This is misleading. African culture promotes family values, patronage and has serious implications on decision-making, choice of management strategy and implementation. For example, in Eritrea, politicisation of the civil service has negatively affected deci- sions taken by civil servants (Tessema & Soeters 2008). Even regarding the manage- ment of private organisations, the separation of business and family life has been proven to be extremely difficult and has negatively affected business performance (Arthur 2007). The second assumption is that collectivism is bad for organisational performance. The most striking feature of African culture is collectivism. Sharing work and good for- tune is part of African culture and goes against individualism and the pursuance of indi- vidual interests. In Malawi there is a saying that: Ubuntu ungamtu mgambunye abantu! Which means: You do not live for yourself; you live for others (Afro-centric Alliance 2001). Collectivism could be strength if people work together and realise a common vision as it is commonly experienced in East Asian countries. However, in Malawi, high performers were ridiculed by colleagues, while it has helped China to be a super power. Third, is that respect for elders and obedience is not as important as meritocracy. Research by Beugre & Offodile (2001) has found that respect for elders due to their age and ability to reward or punish is common in Africa. However, those who respect also expect favours from the elders. Accordingly, pleasing the boss is preferable to perform- ance. Contrary to this, while this has worked positively in Asia by promoting perform- ance, respect for elders and obedience often work to the detriment of performance in African countries because individual workers feel ‘protected’ through patronage. It has also been observed that the African way of thinking and the nature of employ- ment create a dislike of employment which makes employees’ close supervision impor- tant. Ahiauzu (1999) has linked the African perception of work as torture, as a result of a long history of colonial forced labour and alienation from natural African systems of production. According to Ahiauzu, working for long hours in a controlled environment and strong supervision is incompatible with African culture of freedom and social inter- action during work. These are some of the areas that make it necessary to develop an innovative and proactive model for developing human resource management competen- cies for building organisations in Africa. Therefore, the most important single factor that determines the success or failure of the adoption of western based philosophy of people  23 management is culture (Hofstede 1980). Resultantly, as a general rule, human resource management principles are modified to suit local conditions or in some extreme cases some organisations are trapped in a personnel administration era. Review questions 1. Distinguish Human Resource Management from Personnel Management. To what extent are the differences practical? 2. Identify and examine key contributions to the development of human resource management. 3. By using specific examples, discuss the relevance of human resource management functions in the situation of a developing country. References and recommended reading ADESKY, F. (1998), Culture and Development in Africa. accessed on 1 Oct 2008. AGARWALA, T. (2009), Strategic Human Resource Management. New York: Oxford University Press. AHIAUZU, A. (1999), African Industrial Man. Port Harcourt: CIMRAT. AKOSA-SARPAONG, F. (2008), Culture and Development. Promoting the Africa Way. accessed on 1 Oct 2008. ARGYRIS, C. (1982), Reasoning, Learning and Action. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass. ARGYRIS, C. & D. SCHON (1978), Organisational Learning. Reading. MA: Addison Wesley. ARMSTRONG, M. (1995), A Handbook of Personnel Management Practice. London: Kogan page. ARTHUR, P. (2007), Development Institutions and Small Scale Enterprise in Ghana. Journal of Contemporary Africa Studies 24(3): 417-437. BECKER, D. (1964), Human Capital. A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education. New York: Columbia University Press. BEER, M. & B. SPECTOR (1985), Corporate Wide Transformation in Human Resource Management. In: R.E. Walton & R.E. Lawrence, eds, Human Resource Management Trends and Challenges. Bo